Psychology (Sophomore Year)
1. Biological Basis of Behavior
Overview: Explores how biological systems influence behavior, including the nervous system,
brain structures, hormones, and genetics.
• Key Terminologies:
o Neuron: A cell in the nervous system responsible for transmitting information.
o Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses (e.g.,
dopamine, serotonin).
o Synapse: The gap between neurons where communication occurs.
o Brain Structures: Includes the amygdala (emotion), hippocampus (memory),
and prefrontal cortex (decision-making).
o Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt.
o Endocrine System: Glands that release hormones affecting mood and behavior
(e.g., adrenal gland, pituitary gland).
• Best Practices:
o Recognize symptoms linked to neurotransmitter imbalances (e.g., serotonin and
depression).
o Learn brain imaging techniques like MRI or fMRI.
o Use case studies (e.g., Phineas Gage) to understand brain damage's effects.
o Relate genetic predispositions to behavioral tendencies.
o Diagram the nervous system for visual understanding.
• Important Notes:
o Practical tests may require labeling brain structures.
o Understanding brain injuries (e.g., stroke effects) is crucial for practical
application.
o Use mnemonics for hormone functions.
Reference Books:
• Carlson, N. R. (2017). Physiology of Behavior.
• Kalat, J. W. (2019). Biological Psychology.
2. Developmental Psychology
Overview: Focuses on human growth and changes across the lifespan, including cognitive,
emotional, and social development.
• Key Terminologies:
o Attachment Theory: Emotional bonds (e.g., secure vs. insecure attachment).
o Cognitive Development: Stages by Piaget (e.g., sensorimotor, preoperational).
o Erikson's Psychosocial Stages: E.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role
confusion.
o Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Vygotsky's idea of guided learning.
o Critical Periods: Times when specific learning occurs best.
, o Lifespan Perspective: A view that development is lifelong and multidimensional.
• Best Practices:
o Apply Piaget's stages to child education methods.
o Recognize how cultural norms shape development.
o Use Erikson’s stages to assess social and emotional health.
o Study developmental disorders like ADHD or autism.
o Create charts comparing cognitive theories.
• Important Notes:
o Practical tests often involve case studies requiring theory application.
o Observing or interviewing children in real-life settings can strengthen
understanding.
Reference Books:
• Berk, L. E. (2020). Development Through the Lifespan.
• Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development.
3. Social Psychology
Overview: Examines how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by
others.
• Key Terminologies:
o Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.
o Obedience: Following authority directives (e.g., Milgram’s experiment).
o Social Loafing: Reduced effort in group tasks.
o Attribution Theory: Explaining behavior by internal or external causes.
o Groupthink: Poor decision-making in cohesive groups.
o Bystander Effect: Failing to help in emergencies when others are present.
• Best Practices:
o Roleplay to demonstrate conformity vs. independence.
o Analyze famous studies like Zimbardo’s prison experiment.
o Apply persuasion techniques in real-world contexts (e.g., advertising).
o Identify social biases (e.g., stereotyping).
o Observe and document group behavior during tasks.
• Important Notes:
o Be prepared to identify social psychological phenomena in real-world examples.
o Ethical considerations in classic experiments are frequently discussed.
Reference Books:
• Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2020). Social Psychology.
• Myers, D. G. (2018). Exploring Social Psychology.
,4. Research Methods in Psychology
Overview: Teaches experimental design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Key Terminologies:
o Independent Variable (IV): The manipulated factor in an experiment.
o Dependent Variable (DV): The measured outcome in response to IV.
o Operationalization: Defining variables for measurement.
o Random Assignment: Ensuring participants have equal chances of being in
groups.
o Ethical Guidelines: Informed consent, confidentiality, etc.
o Validity and Reliability: Accuracy and consistency of findings.
• Best Practices:
o Practice writing hypotheses (e.g., "If sleep increases, test scores improve").
o Design mock experiments.
o Use statistical tools like SPSS or R.
o Understand correlation vs. causation.
o Conduct literature reviews on psychological topics.
• Important Notes:
o Practical tests may include designing experiments or interpreting data.
o Familiarity with APA citation style is essential for writing reports.
Reference Books:
• Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. A. B. (2020). Research Methods for the Behavioral
Sciences.
• Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2019). Research Methods
in Psychology.
5. Abnormal Psychology
Overview: Studies mental disorders, their diagnosis, and treatment.
• Key Terminologies:
o DSM-5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for mental disorders.
o Anxiety Disorders: E.g., generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder.
o Mood Disorders: E.g., major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder.
o Psychosis: Loss of contact with reality (e.g., schizophrenia).
o Comorbidity: Co-occurrence of two or more disorders.
o Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Common treatment for various disorders.
• Best Practices:
o Analyze case studies for symptom recognition.
o Roleplay as therapists to understand therapeutic techniques.
o Study pharmacological treatments (e.g., SSRIs for depression).
o Explore cultural views on mental health.
o Observe simulated therapy sessions for skills practice.
• Important Notes:
o Be ready to assess hypothetical cases during practical tests.
o Understanding diagnostic criteria is critical for exams.
, Reference Books:
• Barlow, D. H., & Durand, V. M. (2017). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach.
• Comer, R. J. (2021). Abnormal Psychology.
6. Cognitive Psychology
Overview: Focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and
decision-making.
• Key Terminologies:
o Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.
o Attention: Focusing mental resources on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
o Working Memory: Short-term system for storing and manipulating information
(e.g., Baddeley's model).
o Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb for problem-solving.
o Schema: Cognitive frameworks for organizing information.
o Cognitive Load: The amount of mental effort being used in working memory.
• Best Practices:
o Use cognitive strategies like mnemonics to enhance memory.
o Create flowcharts for decision-making processes.
o Design experiments to study attention spans or memory recall.
o Analyze everyday problem-solving methods using heuristics.
o Relate schemas to real-life experiences (e.g., stereotypes).
• Important Notes:
o Practical tests may involve problem-solving exercises or analyzing cognitive
tasks.
o Understand how cognitive biases impact decision-making.
Reference Books:
• Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2020). Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook.
• Goldstein, E. B. (2018). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and
Everyday Experience.
1. Biological Basis of Behavior
Overview: Explores how biological systems influence behavior, including the nervous system,
brain structures, hormones, and genetics.
• Key Terminologies:
o Neuron: A cell in the nervous system responsible for transmitting information.
o Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses (e.g.,
dopamine, serotonin).
o Synapse: The gap between neurons where communication occurs.
o Brain Structures: Includes the amygdala (emotion), hippocampus (memory),
and prefrontal cortex (decision-making).
o Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt.
o Endocrine System: Glands that release hormones affecting mood and behavior
(e.g., adrenal gland, pituitary gland).
• Best Practices:
o Recognize symptoms linked to neurotransmitter imbalances (e.g., serotonin and
depression).
o Learn brain imaging techniques like MRI or fMRI.
o Use case studies (e.g., Phineas Gage) to understand brain damage's effects.
o Relate genetic predispositions to behavioral tendencies.
o Diagram the nervous system for visual understanding.
• Important Notes:
o Practical tests may require labeling brain structures.
o Understanding brain injuries (e.g., stroke effects) is crucial for practical
application.
o Use mnemonics for hormone functions.
Reference Books:
• Carlson, N. R. (2017). Physiology of Behavior.
• Kalat, J. W. (2019). Biological Psychology.
2. Developmental Psychology
Overview: Focuses on human growth and changes across the lifespan, including cognitive,
emotional, and social development.
• Key Terminologies:
o Attachment Theory: Emotional bonds (e.g., secure vs. insecure attachment).
o Cognitive Development: Stages by Piaget (e.g., sensorimotor, preoperational).
o Erikson's Psychosocial Stages: E.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role
confusion.
o Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Vygotsky's idea of guided learning.
o Critical Periods: Times when specific learning occurs best.
, o Lifespan Perspective: A view that development is lifelong and multidimensional.
• Best Practices:
o Apply Piaget's stages to child education methods.
o Recognize how cultural norms shape development.
o Use Erikson’s stages to assess social and emotional health.
o Study developmental disorders like ADHD or autism.
o Create charts comparing cognitive theories.
• Important Notes:
o Practical tests often involve case studies requiring theory application.
o Observing or interviewing children in real-life settings can strengthen
understanding.
Reference Books:
• Berk, L. E. (2020). Development Through the Lifespan.
• Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development.
3. Social Psychology
Overview: Examines how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by
others.
• Key Terminologies:
o Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.
o Obedience: Following authority directives (e.g., Milgram’s experiment).
o Social Loafing: Reduced effort in group tasks.
o Attribution Theory: Explaining behavior by internal or external causes.
o Groupthink: Poor decision-making in cohesive groups.
o Bystander Effect: Failing to help in emergencies when others are present.
• Best Practices:
o Roleplay to demonstrate conformity vs. independence.
o Analyze famous studies like Zimbardo’s prison experiment.
o Apply persuasion techniques in real-world contexts (e.g., advertising).
o Identify social biases (e.g., stereotyping).
o Observe and document group behavior during tasks.
• Important Notes:
o Be prepared to identify social psychological phenomena in real-world examples.
o Ethical considerations in classic experiments are frequently discussed.
Reference Books:
• Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2020). Social Psychology.
• Myers, D. G. (2018). Exploring Social Psychology.
,4. Research Methods in Psychology
Overview: Teaches experimental design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Key Terminologies:
o Independent Variable (IV): The manipulated factor in an experiment.
o Dependent Variable (DV): The measured outcome in response to IV.
o Operationalization: Defining variables for measurement.
o Random Assignment: Ensuring participants have equal chances of being in
groups.
o Ethical Guidelines: Informed consent, confidentiality, etc.
o Validity and Reliability: Accuracy and consistency of findings.
• Best Practices:
o Practice writing hypotheses (e.g., "If sleep increases, test scores improve").
o Design mock experiments.
o Use statistical tools like SPSS or R.
o Understand correlation vs. causation.
o Conduct literature reviews on psychological topics.
• Important Notes:
o Practical tests may include designing experiments or interpreting data.
o Familiarity with APA citation style is essential for writing reports.
Reference Books:
• Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. A. B. (2020). Research Methods for the Behavioral
Sciences.
• Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2019). Research Methods
in Psychology.
5. Abnormal Psychology
Overview: Studies mental disorders, their diagnosis, and treatment.
• Key Terminologies:
o DSM-5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for mental disorders.
o Anxiety Disorders: E.g., generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder.
o Mood Disorders: E.g., major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder.
o Psychosis: Loss of contact with reality (e.g., schizophrenia).
o Comorbidity: Co-occurrence of two or more disorders.
o Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Common treatment for various disorders.
• Best Practices:
o Analyze case studies for symptom recognition.
o Roleplay as therapists to understand therapeutic techniques.
o Study pharmacological treatments (e.g., SSRIs for depression).
o Explore cultural views on mental health.
o Observe simulated therapy sessions for skills practice.
• Important Notes:
o Be ready to assess hypothetical cases during practical tests.
o Understanding diagnostic criteria is critical for exams.
, Reference Books:
• Barlow, D. H., & Durand, V. M. (2017). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach.
• Comer, R. J. (2021). Abnormal Psychology.
6. Cognitive Psychology
Overview: Focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and
decision-making.
• Key Terminologies:
o Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.
o Attention: Focusing mental resources on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
o Working Memory: Short-term system for storing and manipulating information
(e.g., Baddeley's model).
o Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb for problem-solving.
o Schema: Cognitive frameworks for organizing information.
o Cognitive Load: The amount of mental effort being used in working memory.
• Best Practices:
o Use cognitive strategies like mnemonics to enhance memory.
o Create flowcharts for decision-making processes.
o Design experiments to study attention spans or memory recall.
o Analyze everyday problem-solving methods using heuristics.
o Relate schemas to real-life experiences (e.g., stereotypes).
• Important Notes:
o Practical tests may involve problem-solving exercises or analyzing cognitive
tasks.
o Understand how cognitive biases impact decision-making.
Reference Books:
• Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2020). Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook.
• Goldstein, E. B. (2018). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and
Everyday Experience.
