Introductie & Historische Context
The EU is an Unde ned Political Object (UPO). It’s a unique organization. It’s not an international
organization nor a federation/state. EU-gibberish/own dialect/EU lingo.
De Europese Unie heeft een positieve invloed op de oorlogen in Europa.
First and second half of the 20th century
Political and ideological divisions in Europe. Sharp and uid inter-state relations, like the Treaty of
Versailles and the League of Nations (1919).
De Tweede Wereldoorlog had impact op Europa:
- Economic devastation; massive war debts, infrastructural damage
- Political weakness; newly established political systems/regimes, loss of empires
- Europe was quickly divided in two, with Western Europe facing a new menace to the East
- There was a consciousness that the Versailles approach had not resolved the German problem
These factors combined to produce a situation wherein there was a willingness on the part of
many decision-makers to explore new forms of inter-state relations.
Factors that changed the mindset/political climate:
- Emphasis on combating nationalism; e.g. creation of the Council of Europe (1949)
- The new political map of Europe; new borders, division into West and East through the Iron
Curtain, US support for liberal democratic systems
- The new international power balance; start of Cold War, Europe in-between the US and USSR
- The German problem (how to prevent another war); adopt a conciliatory approach
Di erences between the Western European states
Although they had much in common post-World War II, there were major di erences between
West European states. The 6 founding members of the EU: Benelux, West Germany, France, Italy.
No states participated in the integration process for idealistic reasons: hard-headed national
calculations always prevailed. In Milward’s phrase, integration helped rescue the European nation-
state.
However, do not think it was a very straight-forward process to establish the EU. It was for a while
an open ended process.
- The Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), established in April 1948 ->
transformed into the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in
1969;
- The Council of Europe (CoE), created in May 1949;
- The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), created in 1949;
- The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), created by the 1951 Treaty of Paris;
- European Defense Cooperation (EDC) and the Western European Union (WEA), created in 1954;
- The European Economic Community (EEC), created by the 1957 Treaty of Rome.\
The ECSC / Treaty of Paris / 1951
Idea put forth in the Schuman Declaration (1950). Envisaged duration: 50 years. Ambition to
create a free trade area. Why coal and steel? These war at the centre of the war industries (to
make arms and wage war in Europe) and represented the basics of a industrialized society. This
lay the foundation of a common market. Institutions of the ECSC:
- High Authority
- Special Council of Ministers
- Common Assembly
- Court of Justice
Jean Monnet and Robert Schumann -> founding fathers of the European integration/they were at
the origins of the ECSC.
Other initiatives:
- The European Defense Community (1950); goal to establish a European Army under the
political institutions of a united Europe. Similar institutional structure as the ECSC ->
supranational organization. Rejected by the French National Assembly in 1954. This is
ff fi fl ff
, extremely important for us, because it shows that one wasn’t ready for this sort of integration.
So what can be done instead?
- Western European Union (1955); 6 + UK, loosely structured, essentially consultative, primarily
defense-orientated organization. Permitted West German rearmament subject and enabled its
membership into NATO.
The EEC & EURATOM / 1957
After the failure of the EDC, refocus on economic integration. Guided by ideas of free-market,
liberal, non-interventionist capitalism. But with some protectionist elements: agriculture (because of
the French) + some elements of social policy.
Messina Declaration (1955) -> Treaties of Rome (1957): the European Economic Community
(EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).
Goal of EEC
Gradual establishment of a common market.
- Free trade area:
- Customs union:
- Common rules:
- Common/single market
- … references to a future common currency.
EEC institutions:
- Commission
- Council of Ministers
- Parliamentary Assembly
- Court of Justice
Goal of EURATOM
Limited to the atomic energy eld. Focus on
- The promotion of research
- The dissemination of information
- Health and safety standards
- Creation of a nuclear common market
But provisions watered down by differences between states. Many exceptions to allow the
protection of national interests in a sensitive eld.
EURATOM institutions:
- Commission
- Council of Ministers
- Assembly
- Court of Justice
For an overview of European Communities institutions (ECSC, EEC, EURATOM) -> see slides.
In 1965, the 3 communities merged (European Community).
Wrap-up
1. European integration started as a result of WW2
2. At rst, many competing initiatives to cooperate in Western Europe; political initiatives failed
and focus on economic cooperation
3. ECSC rst organization of the future EU
4. In the long run, EEC more signi cant for European integration; institutional structures survived
until today and con icting visions between supranational and intergovernmental institutions
fi fi fl fi fi fi
, History of European Integration (vervolg)
Approaches to the study of the history of European integration
- via chronology (crises, notable events)
- via the treaties
- via deepening of policies and institutions
- via widening of membership
These approaches are not alternatives, but rather are mutually reinforcing
The history viewed via a chronological approach
Focus on grand steps, notably:
- Crisis
- The treaties
- Enlargements
Focus on incremental steps such as:
- Economic (interdependence)
- Political decisions (e.g. development of policy areas)
- Court judgements
The history viewed via the treaties
- The treaties have all re ected, but also have advanced, the unfolding integration process
- None contains any signi cant element of ‘rolling back’ European integration
- From mid-1980s to mid-2000s: major rounds of treaty reform every four or ve years
- Some treaties have been more important than others
- The treaties have been based on intergovernmental bargaining and compromises: re ect the
’messy’ nature of the integration process
Overview of Treaties -> see slides!
The history as viewed via deepening
Deepening = vertical integration (ever-more intense nature of the integration between Member
States). There are two dimensions of deepening:
1. Institutional deepening
- Growing powers of supranational institutions (the European Commission, the European
Parliament, the Court of Justice).
- The increased use of Quali ed Majority Voting (QMV) in the Council as opposed to unanimity.
2. Policy deepening
- The growth in policy competence of the EU
- from customs union and a common market...
- ...environmental policy and consumer protection, economic policy, migration and asylum etc.
The history as viewed via widening
Widening refers to the increasing number of members of the EU:
- From the original 6 founding members (France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands,
Luxembourg)...
- ... to 28 members (27 after Brexit).
Hierbij de kaartjes bestuderen -> see slides and book!
Wrap-up
1. The history of European integration can be learned in many ways; di erent approaches
emphasize di erent aspects.
2. It is generally agreed that European integration has both deepened and widened over time.
3. But enlargement has complicated the deepening of integration; more Member States → more
diversity → more complex institutions → di culties to take decisions.
ff fl fi fi ffi ff fi fl
The EU is an Unde ned Political Object (UPO). It’s a unique organization. It’s not an international
organization nor a federation/state. EU-gibberish/own dialect/EU lingo.
De Europese Unie heeft een positieve invloed op de oorlogen in Europa.
First and second half of the 20th century
Political and ideological divisions in Europe. Sharp and uid inter-state relations, like the Treaty of
Versailles and the League of Nations (1919).
De Tweede Wereldoorlog had impact op Europa:
- Economic devastation; massive war debts, infrastructural damage
- Political weakness; newly established political systems/regimes, loss of empires
- Europe was quickly divided in two, with Western Europe facing a new menace to the East
- There was a consciousness that the Versailles approach had not resolved the German problem
These factors combined to produce a situation wherein there was a willingness on the part of
many decision-makers to explore new forms of inter-state relations.
Factors that changed the mindset/political climate:
- Emphasis on combating nationalism; e.g. creation of the Council of Europe (1949)
- The new political map of Europe; new borders, division into West and East through the Iron
Curtain, US support for liberal democratic systems
- The new international power balance; start of Cold War, Europe in-between the US and USSR
- The German problem (how to prevent another war); adopt a conciliatory approach
Di erences between the Western European states
Although they had much in common post-World War II, there were major di erences between
West European states. The 6 founding members of the EU: Benelux, West Germany, France, Italy.
No states participated in the integration process for idealistic reasons: hard-headed national
calculations always prevailed. In Milward’s phrase, integration helped rescue the European nation-
state.
However, do not think it was a very straight-forward process to establish the EU. It was for a while
an open ended process.
- The Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), established in April 1948 ->
transformed into the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in
1969;
- The Council of Europe (CoE), created in May 1949;
- The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), created in 1949;
- The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), created by the 1951 Treaty of Paris;
- European Defense Cooperation (EDC) and the Western European Union (WEA), created in 1954;
- The European Economic Community (EEC), created by the 1957 Treaty of Rome.\
The ECSC / Treaty of Paris / 1951
Idea put forth in the Schuman Declaration (1950). Envisaged duration: 50 years. Ambition to
create a free trade area. Why coal and steel? These war at the centre of the war industries (to
make arms and wage war in Europe) and represented the basics of a industrialized society. This
lay the foundation of a common market. Institutions of the ECSC:
- High Authority
- Special Council of Ministers
- Common Assembly
- Court of Justice
Jean Monnet and Robert Schumann -> founding fathers of the European integration/they were at
the origins of the ECSC.
Other initiatives:
- The European Defense Community (1950); goal to establish a European Army under the
political institutions of a united Europe. Similar institutional structure as the ECSC ->
supranational organization. Rejected by the French National Assembly in 1954. This is
ff fi fl ff
, extremely important for us, because it shows that one wasn’t ready for this sort of integration.
So what can be done instead?
- Western European Union (1955); 6 + UK, loosely structured, essentially consultative, primarily
defense-orientated organization. Permitted West German rearmament subject and enabled its
membership into NATO.
The EEC & EURATOM / 1957
After the failure of the EDC, refocus on economic integration. Guided by ideas of free-market,
liberal, non-interventionist capitalism. But with some protectionist elements: agriculture (because of
the French) + some elements of social policy.
Messina Declaration (1955) -> Treaties of Rome (1957): the European Economic Community
(EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).
Goal of EEC
Gradual establishment of a common market.
- Free trade area:
- Customs union:
- Common rules:
- Common/single market
- … references to a future common currency.
EEC institutions:
- Commission
- Council of Ministers
- Parliamentary Assembly
- Court of Justice
Goal of EURATOM
Limited to the atomic energy eld. Focus on
- The promotion of research
- The dissemination of information
- Health and safety standards
- Creation of a nuclear common market
But provisions watered down by differences between states. Many exceptions to allow the
protection of national interests in a sensitive eld.
EURATOM institutions:
- Commission
- Council of Ministers
- Assembly
- Court of Justice
For an overview of European Communities institutions (ECSC, EEC, EURATOM) -> see slides.
In 1965, the 3 communities merged (European Community).
Wrap-up
1. European integration started as a result of WW2
2. At rst, many competing initiatives to cooperate in Western Europe; political initiatives failed
and focus on economic cooperation
3. ECSC rst organization of the future EU
4. In the long run, EEC more signi cant for European integration; institutional structures survived
until today and con icting visions between supranational and intergovernmental institutions
fi fi fl fi fi fi
, History of European Integration (vervolg)
Approaches to the study of the history of European integration
- via chronology (crises, notable events)
- via the treaties
- via deepening of policies and institutions
- via widening of membership
These approaches are not alternatives, but rather are mutually reinforcing
The history viewed via a chronological approach
Focus on grand steps, notably:
- Crisis
- The treaties
- Enlargements
Focus on incremental steps such as:
- Economic (interdependence)
- Political decisions (e.g. development of policy areas)
- Court judgements
The history viewed via the treaties
- The treaties have all re ected, but also have advanced, the unfolding integration process
- None contains any signi cant element of ‘rolling back’ European integration
- From mid-1980s to mid-2000s: major rounds of treaty reform every four or ve years
- Some treaties have been more important than others
- The treaties have been based on intergovernmental bargaining and compromises: re ect the
’messy’ nature of the integration process
Overview of Treaties -> see slides!
The history as viewed via deepening
Deepening = vertical integration (ever-more intense nature of the integration between Member
States). There are two dimensions of deepening:
1. Institutional deepening
- Growing powers of supranational institutions (the European Commission, the European
Parliament, the Court of Justice).
- The increased use of Quali ed Majority Voting (QMV) in the Council as opposed to unanimity.
2. Policy deepening
- The growth in policy competence of the EU
- from customs union and a common market...
- ...environmental policy and consumer protection, economic policy, migration and asylum etc.
The history as viewed via widening
Widening refers to the increasing number of members of the EU:
- From the original 6 founding members (France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands,
Luxembourg)...
- ... to 28 members (27 after Brexit).
Hierbij de kaartjes bestuderen -> see slides and book!
Wrap-up
1. The history of European integration can be learned in many ways; di erent approaches
emphasize di erent aspects.
2. It is generally agreed that European integration has both deepened and widened over time.
3. But enlargement has complicated the deepening of integration; more Member States → more
diversity → more complex institutions → di culties to take decisions.
ff fl fi fi ffi ff fi fl
