Summary European Integration
Chapter 2 – The European Union: establishment and
development
2.1 introduction
Establishment EU: 1 November 1993. Council of Europe: 1949
The creation of the Council of Europe and the European Communities (ECSC,
EEC, and Euratom) marked foundational steps. These were initiated by the six
founding countries: Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands.
2.2 Integration and cooperation in Europe: ambitions, tensions, and
divisions
The 1950s and 60s saw a deepening of integration through supranational
institutions and key treaties like the Treaties of Rome (1957). These
established the EEC and Euratom and set the goal of an "ever closer union." The
focus was mainly economic, but the political dimension was always implicit.
2.3 The Communities and a Europe of ‘the Six’
Integration stalled in the 1970s due to economic crises and political divisions.
However, in the 1980s, momentum returned with the Single European Act
(1986) and the Single Market initiative, which helped reinvigorate the
integration process.
Challenges of a more diverse membership, because of enlargement.
2.4 Establishing the European Union
The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) formally created the European Union, which
came into force in 1993. It introduced a three-pillar structure:
The European Communities (supranational),
Common Foreign and Security Policy (intergovernmental),
Justice and Home Affairs cooperation (intergovernmental).
The TEU introduced treaty-based opt-outs from certain policy areas for some
member states.
Acquis Communautaire: the body of legislation, legal acts and judicial
decisions that together form the corpus of EU law. It includes all treaties, laws,
and case law of the Court of Justice of the EU.
2.5 Reviewing the Union: the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference and
the Treaty of Amsterdam
The Amsterdam Treaty (1997) enhanced cooperation in areas like justice and
introduced ideas such as flexible integration, it incorporated Schengen
cooperation into the EU. The Nice Treaty (2000) focused on institutional
reforms needed for the upcoming Eastern enlargement, although it fell short of
some expectations.
2.6 Preparing for enlargement and the twenty-first century: the 2000
Intergovernmental Conference, the Treaty of Nice, and the ‘Future of
Europe’ debate
Changes in the approach that the EU was adopting towards enlargement in 1999
gave greater urgency to the need to address the ‘Amsterdam leftovers’ and to
,agree institutional reform. Agenda 2000 provided the European Commission’s
blueprint for enlargement.
The Treaty of Nice may have paved the way for enlargement, but to many it
provided suboptimal solutions to the institutional challenges posed by a
significantly larger EU. While criticized for potentially weakening the EU, the
Treaty of Nice initiated a process designed to respond to calls for a European
Federation and a European Constitution.
Chapter 3 – Carrying the EU forward: the era of Lisbon
3.1 Introduction
The pursuit of reform the EU occurred against the backdrop of the
Constitutional Treaty (CT), but this failed. The Treaty of Lisbon concluded
years of constitutional reform efforts. It entered into force in 2009 but was soon
tested by the eurozone crisis and Brexit. Despite rising Euroscepticism,
discussions about the EU's future continue, though no major new treaty reform
has occurred yet.
European Stability Mechanism (ESM): permanent rescue funding programme
to help address the sovereign debt crisis and to establish more effective
mechanisms for coordinated economic governance.
3.2 From the ‘Future of Europe’ debate to the constitutional treaty
The ‘Future of Europe’ debate began after the Treaty of Nice revealed
institutional weaknesses. The European Convention (2002–2003) attempted to
be more open and more innovative, but it failed to attract popular attention and
was perceived as an elite-driven process. This led directly to the Constitutional
Treaty.
3.3 The 2003-04 intergovernmental conference and the constitutional
treaty
The 2003-04 IGC produced a slightly amended text. The resulting Constitutional
Treaty (CT), based on the convention draft, was signed in 2004. It was designed
to replace all the existing treaties and become the single constitutional document
of the EU. It attempted to establish a streamlined and more democratic EU.
Range of concerns and popular discontent with the EU.
3.4 From constitutional crisis to negotiating the treaty of Lisbon
After French and Dutch voters rejected the Constitutional Treaty, the EU faced
a constitutional crisis. Under German leadership, a strategy emerged to salvage
key reforms by turning them into a traditional treaty. This led to the rapid
negotiation of the Treaty of Lisbon, signed in December 2007.
3.5 Them main elements of the Treaty of Lisbon
The Treaty of Lisbon was an amending treaty (operating in the framework of
existing treaties). It function was to amended, rather than replace, the EU’s
founding treaties (TEU, TEC). It modernized and renamed the TEU and TEC as the
Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU), created legal protocols, and
included reforms like the Charter of Fundamental Rights and new institutional
arrangements. Together, the TEU and TFEU create one simplified and more
efficient structure; the EU, with characteristics close to those of the past.
, 1. The Treaty of Lisbon brought matters into line with common practice.
Everything now functioned according to the basic Community method.
2. The Treaty made it clear that the EU is a body based on powers conferred
by the member states and subject to subsidiarity. The EU’s powers are not
all-embracing or self-generated.
3. EU policies were not greatly expanded by the Treaty. The main change
concerned rules on justice and home affairs now governed by normal EU
procedures.
4. The Treaty renamed co-decision as the ordinary legislative procedure
(OLP) and established it as the default legislative process.
5. The Treaty of Lisbon introduced changes to institutional arrangements
affecting all key institutions
6. New emphasis on values and rights. The former where expanded and given
more prominence, the latter were given a dual boost.
Not all the of the constitutional Treaty made it to TFEU; constitutional language
and EU’s symbols were dropped.
3.6 The Treaty of Lisbon: an appraisal
While Lisbon aimed to make the EU more democratic and efficient, its actual
impact was moderate and the treaty was complex to understand. It introduced
clearer rules, expanded the role of national parliaments, and strengthened the
European Council, but did not revolutionize the Union.
Article 50 of TEU sets out the procedure for a member state’s exit from the EU.
3.7 Ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon
Ratification took place in the summer of 2008. The main causes of the ‘no’ vote
in Ireland ware a lack of knowledge and understanding of the Treaty, together
with specific national concerns. Irish voters’ concerns were addressed through
guarantees and dedicated Irish protocol, thus paving the way for a ‘yes’ vote in a
second referendum.
3.8 The significance of the Treaty of Lisbon
The Treaty of Lisbon was crucial for adapting the EU to enlargement and modern
challenges, but it also exposed a deeper crisis of legitimacy. The Irish ‘no’
opened up a new period of crisis over EU reform. Despite reforms, many citizens
remained sceptical of the EU’s democratic credentials.
3.9 Implementing the Treaty of Lisbon
The Treaty occurred against the backdrop of the economic crisis. Although Lisbon
introduced important changes, its practical effects were shaped by the eurozone
crisis, making the European Council even more dominant. The EU still perceived
as suffering from a democratic deficit. The Treaty stabilized the EU but did not
radically transform its functioning.
3.10 Beyond the Treaty of Lisbon: crises, Brexit, and the future of the
EU
Crises like the eurozone debt crisis, Brexit, and COVID-19 have shown the limits
of the Lisbon reforms. The Treaty was never intended to provide closure on EU
treaty reform. Despite some calls for treaty change, major reform efforts stalled,
and only minor adjustments have been pursued due to increased Euroscepticism.
, Now that the UK left, the TEU, TFEU and other treaty texts will need revision, but
that is low on the EU agenda.
Chapter 4 – Neo- functionalism
4.2 What is neo-functionalism?
It is a theory of integration that seeks to explain the process of integration. The
theory was particularly influential in the 1950s and 1960s, but is still widely used
as a theoretical point of reference.
Its main focus is on the factors that drive integration: interest group activity at
the European and national levels; political party activity; and the role of
governments and supranational institutions. European integration is mostly seen
as an elite-driven process.
4.3 A brief history of neo-functionalism
Neo-functionalism was fashionable among elites and academics until the 1970s.
From here on, other theoretical and conceptual approaches seemed to fit the
reality of European integration much better and the theory became unpopular.
In the 1990s, with the revival of the integration process, there was also a
renewed interest in neo-functionalism.
From the mid-2000s there have been further attempts to develop the theoretical
framework of traditional neo-functionalism and to re-evaluate its contribution to
both European integration and disintegration.
4.4 Supranationalism and spillover
How does economic integration lead to political integration?
Spillover: the concept refers to a process in which political cooperation
conducted with a specific goal in mind leads to the formulation of new
goals in order to assure the achievement of the original goal. This means
that political cooperation is extended over time in a way that was not
necessarily intended at the outset.
3 kinds of spillovers:
o Functional spillover: one step towards cooperation functionally
leads to another. Example: single market was functionally related to
common rules governing the working environment. The functional
consequence was that the member states ended up accepting the
regulation of certain aspects of the working environment, even
though this was not their original objective.
o Political spillover: national political elites or interest groups argue
that supranational cooperation is needed to solve specific problems.
Interest groups understand that their chances of success increase
when they support European rather than national solutions.
o Cultivated spillover: situations in which supranational actors push
the process of political integration forward when they mediate
between the member states.
Elite socialization: development of supranational loyalties by participants
such as officials and politicians in the decision-making process. The theory
is that over time, people involved on a regular basis in the supranational
policy process will tend to develop European loyalties and preferences.
Chapter 2 – The European Union: establishment and
development
2.1 introduction
Establishment EU: 1 November 1993. Council of Europe: 1949
The creation of the Council of Europe and the European Communities (ECSC,
EEC, and Euratom) marked foundational steps. These were initiated by the six
founding countries: Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands.
2.2 Integration and cooperation in Europe: ambitions, tensions, and
divisions
The 1950s and 60s saw a deepening of integration through supranational
institutions and key treaties like the Treaties of Rome (1957). These
established the EEC and Euratom and set the goal of an "ever closer union." The
focus was mainly economic, but the political dimension was always implicit.
2.3 The Communities and a Europe of ‘the Six’
Integration stalled in the 1970s due to economic crises and political divisions.
However, in the 1980s, momentum returned with the Single European Act
(1986) and the Single Market initiative, which helped reinvigorate the
integration process.
Challenges of a more diverse membership, because of enlargement.
2.4 Establishing the European Union
The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) formally created the European Union, which
came into force in 1993. It introduced a three-pillar structure:
The European Communities (supranational),
Common Foreign and Security Policy (intergovernmental),
Justice and Home Affairs cooperation (intergovernmental).
The TEU introduced treaty-based opt-outs from certain policy areas for some
member states.
Acquis Communautaire: the body of legislation, legal acts and judicial
decisions that together form the corpus of EU law. It includes all treaties, laws,
and case law of the Court of Justice of the EU.
2.5 Reviewing the Union: the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference and
the Treaty of Amsterdam
The Amsterdam Treaty (1997) enhanced cooperation in areas like justice and
introduced ideas such as flexible integration, it incorporated Schengen
cooperation into the EU. The Nice Treaty (2000) focused on institutional
reforms needed for the upcoming Eastern enlargement, although it fell short of
some expectations.
2.6 Preparing for enlargement and the twenty-first century: the 2000
Intergovernmental Conference, the Treaty of Nice, and the ‘Future of
Europe’ debate
Changes in the approach that the EU was adopting towards enlargement in 1999
gave greater urgency to the need to address the ‘Amsterdam leftovers’ and to
,agree institutional reform. Agenda 2000 provided the European Commission’s
blueprint for enlargement.
The Treaty of Nice may have paved the way for enlargement, but to many it
provided suboptimal solutions to the institutional challenges posed by a
significantly larger EU. While criticized for potentially weakening the EU, the
Treaty of Nice initiated a process designed to respond to calls for a European
Federation and a European Constitution.
Chapter 3 – Carrying the EU forward: the era of Lisbon
3.1 Introduction
The pursuit of reform the EU occurred against the backdrop of the
Constitutional Treaty (CT), but this failed. The Treaty of Lisbon concluded
years of constitutional reform efforts. It entered into force in 2009 but was soon
tested by the eurozone crisis and Brexit. Despite rising Euroscepticism,
discussions about the EU's future continue, though no major new treaty reform
has occurred yet.
European Stability Mechanism (ESM): permanent rescue funding programme
to help address the sovereign debt crisis and to establish more effective
mechanisms for coordinated economic governance.
3.2 From the ‘Future of Europe’ debate to the constitutional treaty
The ‘Future of Europe’ debate began after the Treaty of Nice revealed
institutional weaknesses. The European Convention (2002–2003) attempted to
be more open and more innovative, but it failed to attract popular attention and
was perceived as an elite-driven process. This led directly to the Constitutional
Treaty.
3.3 The 2003-04 intergovernmental conference and the constitutional
treaty
The 2003-04 IGC produced a slightly amended text. The resulting Constitutional
Treaty (CT), based on the convention draft, was signed in 2004. It was designed
to replace all the existing treaties and become the single constitutional document
of the EU. It attempted to establish a streamlined and more democratic EU.
Range of concerns and popular discontent with the EU.
3.4 From constitutional crisis to negotiating the treaty of Lisbon
After French and Dutch voters rejected the Constitutional Treaty, the EU faced
a constitutional crisis. Under German leadership, a strategy emerged to salvage
key reforms by turning them into a traditional treaty. This led to the rapid
negotiation of the Treaty of Lisbon, signed in December 2007.
3.5 Them main elements of the Treaty of Lisbon
The Treaty of Lisbon was an amending treaty (operating in the framework of
existing treaties). It function was to amended, rather than replace, the EU’s
founding treaties (TEU, TEC). It modernized and renamed the TEU and TEC as the
Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU), created legal protocols, and
included reforms like the Charter of Fundamental Rights and new institutional
arrangements. Together, the TEU and TFEU create one simplified and more
efficient structure; the EU, with characteristics close to those of the past.
, 1. The Treaty of Lisbon brought matters into line with common practice.
Everything now functioned according to the basic Community method.
2. The Treaty made it clear that the EU is a body based on powers conferred
by the member states and subject to subsidiarity. The EU’s powers are not
all-embracing or self-generated.
3. EU policies were not greatly expanded by the Treaty. The main change
concerned rules on justice and home affairs now governed by normal EU
procedures.
4. The Treaty renamed co-decision as the ordinary legislative procedure
(OLP) and established it as the default legislative process.
5. The Treaty of Lisbon introduced changes to institutional arrangements
affecting all key institutions
6. New emphasis on values and rights. The former where expanded and given
more prominence, the latter were given a dual boost.
Not all the of the constitutional Treaty made it to TFEU; constitutional language
and EU’s symbols were dropped.
3.6 The Treaty of Lisbon: an appraisal
While Lisbon aimed to make the EU more democratic and efficient, its actual
impact was moderate and the treaty was complex to understand. It introduced
clearer rules, expanded the role of national parliaments, and strengthened the
European Council, but did not revolutionize the Union.
Article 50 of TEU sets out the procedure for a member state’s exit from the EU.
3.7 Ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon
Ratification took place in the summer of 2008. The main causes of the ‘no’ vote
in Ireland ware a lack of knowledge and understanding of the Treaty, together
with specific national concerns. Irish voters’ concerns were addressed through
guarantees and dedicated Irish protocol, thus paving the way for a ‘yes’ vote in a
second referendum.
3.8 The significance of the Treaty of Lisbon
The Treaty of Lisbon was crucial for adapting the EU to enlargement and modern
challenges, but it also exposed a deeper crisis of legitimacy. The Irish ‘no’
opened up a new period of crisis over EU reform. Despite reforms, many citizens
remained sceptical of the EU’s democratic credentials.
3.9 Implementing the Treaty of Lisbon
The Treaty occurred against the backdrop of the economic crisis. Although Lisbon
introduced important changes, its practical effects were shaped by the eurozone
crisis, making the European Council even more dominant. The EU still perceived
as suffering from a democratic deficit. The Treaty stabilized the EU but did not
radically transform its functioning.
3.10 Beyond the Treaty of Lisbon: crises, Brexit, and the future of the
EU
Crises like the eurozone debt crisis, Brexit, and COVID-19 have shown the limits
of the Lisbon reforms. The Treaty was never intended to provide closure on EU
treaty reform. Despite some calls for treaty change, major reform efforts stalled,
and only minor adjustments have been pursued due to increased Euroscepticism.
, Now that the UK left, the TEU, TFEU and other treaty texts will need revision, but
that is low on the EU agenda.
Chapter 4 – Neo- functionalism
4.2 What is neo-functionalism?
It is a theory of integration that seeks to explain the process of integration. The
theory was particularly influential in the 1950s and 1960s, but is still widely used
as a theoretical point of reference.
Its main focus is on the factors that drive integration: interest group activity at
the European and national levels; political party activity; and the role of
governments and supranational institutions. European integration is mostly seen
as an elite-driven process.
4.3 A brief history of neo-functionalism
Neo-functionalism was fashionable among elites and academics until the 1970s.
From here on, other theoretical and conceptual approaches seemed to fit the
reality of European integration much better and the theory became unpopular.
In the 1990s, with the revival of the integration process, there was also a
renewed interest in neo-functionalism.
From the mid-2000s there have been further attempts to develop the theoretical
framework of traditional neo-functionalism and to re-evaluate its contribution to
both European integration and disintegration.
4.4 Supranationalism and spillover
How does economic integration lead to political integration?
Spillover: the concept refers to a process in which political cooperation
conducted with a specific goal in mind leads to the formulation of new
goals in order to assure the achievement of the original goal. This means
that political cooperation is extended over time in a way that was not
necessarily intended at the outset.
3 kinds of spillovers:
o Functional spillover: one step towards cooperation functionally
leads to another. Example: single market was functionally related to
common rules governing the working environment. The functional
consequence was that the member states ended up accepting the
regulation of certain aspects of the working environment, even
though this was not their original objective.
o Political spillover: national political elites or interest groups argue
that supranational cooperation is needed to solve specific problems.
Interest groups understand that their chances of success increase
when they support European rather than national solutions.
o Cultivated spillover: situations in which supranational actors push
the process of political integration forward when they mediate
between the member states.
Elite socialization: development of supranational loyalties by participants
such as officials and politicians in the decision-making process. The theory
is that over time, people involved on a regular basis in the supranational
policy process will tend to develop European loyalties and preferences.
