Unit 4
4.1 What Was The Negritude Movement?
The Rise of Negritude and Negrisimo
● Negritude: A literary and cultural movement developed by Black intellectuals, poets,
and politicians in the Francophone world that both celebrated African heritage and
resisted colonial oppression
● Negrisimo: A literary and artistic movement in Latin America and the Caribbean that
embraced African cultural influences often focusing on rhythm, music, and followers
○ The emergence of the Negritude and Negrisimo movements in the early to
mid-20th century affirmed the influence of African heritage and cultural
aesthetics on many Afro-descendants throughout the African diaspora. These
movements reinforced each other (and both were influenced by the New Negro
movement in the U.S.)
○ Both of these movements shared an emphasis on cultural pride and political
liberation of Black people; but they did not always envision Blackness or
relationships to Africa the same way
● Both of these movements challenged the idea that European culture was superior and
sought to affirm the value of both African and Afro-Caribbean identities.
● Proponents of Negritude and Negrisimo (such as Aime Cesaire from Martinique)
argued that racial ideologies underpinned colonial exploitation, violent intervention,
and systems of coerced labor.
○ Both movements also argued that colonizers imposed Eurocentric histories and
actively ignored or distorted African and Afro-Caribbean cultural contributions
○ Negrisimo writers highlighted how African heritage shaped Caribbean identity
despite colonial attempts to erase it or minimize it
○ They also pointed out how colonial economies depended on the exploitation of
Black labor in agriculture, industry, and service sectors; keeping
Afro-descendant communities in poverty
● While Negrisimo and Negritude were often more focused on cultural expression they
both laid the foundation for later political activism against racial and colonial
oppression.
4.2 Anti-Colonialism and Black Political Thought
The Black Freedom Movement
● The Black Freedom Movement encompasses a period of transnational activism from
the mid-1940s to the 1970s.
● It is marked by both the:
○ Civil Rights Movement: a movement that worked to dismantle Jim Crow laws
and practices through the 1950s and 60s
, ○ Black Power Movement: a movement that heightened Black consciousness and
racial pride in the U.S and abroad in the 1960s and 70s
● The movement also was linked to the anti-colonial struggles in Africa and the
Caribbean; inspired by leaders like Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) and Frantz Fanon
(Algeria)
● The fight against apartheid in South Africa mirrored civil rights struggles with leaders
like Nelson Mandela advocating for racial justice
● In the 1950s and 1960s African American writers, leaders, and activists visited Africa
to express diasporic solidarity and support for Africa’s decolonization
● Some embraced pan Africanism and advocated for the political and cultural unity of all
people of African descent
○ The Republic of Ghana’s independence from British colonial rule in 1957
inspired visits from African American activists such as Martin Luther King Jr.
and Malcolm X, Maya Angelou, lawyer Pauli Murray and WEB DuBois
○ In 1960, renowned boxer Joe Louis travelled with a predominantly African
American delegation to Cuba as a tourist destination for African Americans to
escape the prevalence of Jim Crow discrimination and segregation
● As African Americans and Africans acknowledged their struggles against anti-Black
racism and oppression, diasporic solidarity, between them bolstered the global reach of
the Black Freedom movement to audiences beyond the United States
● Anti-Apartheid Movements in South Africa: African Americans played a critical role
in the global fight against apartheid in South Africa
○ Activists like Randall Robinson, members of the Black caucus and other
grassroots organizers pressured the U.S to impose sanctions
4.3 African Americans and the Second World War
African Americans in WWII
● African Americans played a crucial role in World War II, contributing both on the
battlefield and on the home front while using their service to challenge racial
discrimination. Over 2 million African Americans registered for the draft or voluntarily
enlisted and served in every single branch of the U.S military
○ The Tuskegee Airmen: This all black fighter pilot group, trained at the
Tuskegee Institute in Alabama flew over 15,000 sorties in Europe, protecting
bombers and challenging racist beliefs about Black military capability
○ The 761st Tank Battalion: This all-Black tank battalion fought in key battles,
including the Battle of the Bulge; their combat effectiveness earned them
several honors, including a Presidential Unit Citation
○ Dorie Miller (Pearl Harbor): A mess attendant in the segregated U.S Navy;
Miller took control of an anti-aircraft gun during an attack on Pearl Harbor,
4.1 What Was The Negritude Movement?
The Rise of Negritude and Negrisimo
● Negritude: A literary and cultural movement developed by Black intellectuals, poets,
and politicians in the Francophone world that both celebrated African heritage and
resisted colonial oppression
● Negrisimo: A literary and artistic movement in Latin America and the Caribbean that
embraced African cultural influences often focusing on rhythm, music, and followers
○ The emergence of the Negritude and Negrisimo movements in the early to
mid-20th century affirmed the influence of African heritage and cultural
aesthetics on many Afro-descendants throughout the African diaspora. These
movements reinforced each other (and both were influenced by the New Negro
movement in the U.S.)
○ Both of these movements shared an emphasis on cultural pride and political
liberation of Black people; but they did not always envision Blackness or
relationships to Africa the same way
● Both of these movements challenged the idea that European culture was superior and
sought to affirm the value of both African and Afro-Caribbean identities.
● Proponents of Negritude and Negrisimo (such as Aime Cesaire from Martinique)
argued that racial ideologies underpinned colonial exploitation, violent intervention,
and systems of coerced labor.
○ Both movements also argued that colonizers imposed Eurocentric histories and
actively ignored or distorted African and Afro-Caribbean cultural contributions
○ Negrisimo writers highlighted how African heritage shaped Caribbean identity
despite colonial attempts to erase it or minimize it
○ They also pointed out how colonial economies depended on the exploitation of
Black labor in agriculture, industry, and service sectors; keeping
Afro-descendant communities in poverty
● While Negrisimo and Negritude were often more focused on cultural expression they
both laid the foundation for later political activism against racial and colonial
oppression.
4.2 Anti-Colonialism and Black Political Thought
The Black Freedom Movement
● The Black Freedom Movement encompasses a period of transnational activism from
the mid-1940s to the 1970s.
● It is marked by both the:
○ Civil Rights Movement: a movement that worked to dismantle Jim Crow laws
and practices through the 1950s and 60s
, ○ Black Power Movement: a movement that heightened Black consciousness and
racial pride in the U.S and abroad in the 1960s and 70s
● The movement also was linked to the anti-colonial struggles in Africa and the
Caribbean; inspired by leaders like Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) and Frantz Fanon
(Algeria)
● The fight against apartheid in South Africa mirrored civil rights struggles with leaders
like Nelson Mandela advocating for racial justice
● In the 1950s and 1960s African American writers, leaders, and activists visited Africa
to express diasporic solidarity and support for Africa’s decolonization
● Some embraced pan Africanism and advocated for the political and cultural unity of all
people of African descent
○ The Republic of Ghana’s independence from British colonial rule in 1957
inspired visits from African American activists such as Martin Luther King Jr.
and Malcolm X, Maya Angelou, lawyer Pauli Murray and WEB DuBois
○ In 1960, renowned boxer Joe Louis travelled with a predominantly African
American delegation to Cuba as a tourist destination for African Americans to
escape the prevalence of Jim Crow discrimination and segregation
● As African Americans and Africans acknowledged their struggles against anti-Black
racism and oppression, diasporic solidarity, between them bolstered the global reach of
the Black Freedom movement to audiences beyond the United States
● Anti-Apartheid Movements in South Africa: African Americans played a critical role
in the global fight against apartheid in South Africa
○ Activists like Randall Robinson, members of the Black caucus and other
grassroots organizers pressured the U.S to impose sanctions
4.3 African Americans and the Second World War
African Americans in WWII
● African Americans played a crucial role in World War II, contributing both on the
battlefield and on the home front while using their service to challenge racial
discrimination. Over 2 million African Americans registered for the draft or voluntarily
enlisted and served in every single branch of the U.S military
○ The Tuskegee Airmen: This all black fighter pilot group, trained at the
Tuskegee Institute in Alabama flew over 15,000 sorties in Europe, protecting
bombers and challenging racist beliefs about Black military capability
○ The 761st Tank Battalion: This all-Black tank battalion fought in key battles,
including the Battle of the Bulge; their combat effectiveness earned them
several honors, including a Presidential Unit Citation
○ Dorie Miller (Pearl Harbor): A mess attendant in the segregated U.S Navy;
Miller took control of an anti-aircraft gun during an attack on Pearl Harbor,
