ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - EXAM 1 - CHAPTER 1-4 QUESTIONS AND COMPLETE SOLUTIONS

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - EXAM 1 - CHAPTER 1-4 QUESTIONS AND COMPLETE SOLUTIONS “•Abnormal psychology - CORRECT ANSWER •Scientific study of abnormal behavior in an effort to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning •Many definitions have been proposed, yet none has won total acceptance" "Workers in the field may be: - CORRECT ANSWER Clinical scientists Clinical practitioners" "•Common feature across definitions - CORRECT ANSWER The Four Ds Deviance Distress Dysfunction Danger Influences Norms Culture Context" "Recent Decades and Current Trends - CORRECT ANSWER •Negative public attitudes still exist, but there have been major changes in the last 60 years in the ways clinicians understand and treat abnormal functioning: •More theories and treatment types •More research and information •More disagreements about abnormal functioning" "Survey: - CORRECT ANSWER 43% of people believe that people bring mental health disorders upon themselves; 35% consider mental health disorders to be caused by sinful behavior." "How Are People with Severe Disturbances Cared For? - CORRECT ANSWER New psychotropic medications discovered in 1950s •Antipsychotic drugs •Antidepressant drugs •Antianxiety drugs Led to deinstitutionalization and rise in outpatient care" "The Impact of Deinstitutionalization - CORRECT ANSWER •Psychotropic medications: Drugs that mainly affect the brain and reduce many symptoms of mental dysfunction. •The number of patients (around 42,000) now hospitalized in public mental hospitals in the United States is a small fraction of the number hospitalized in 1955. (Information from Lang, 1999; Smith & Milazzo-Sayre, 2014; Torrey, 2001.)" "How Are People with Severe Disturbances Treated? - CORRECT ANSWER •Before 1950 •Almost all outpatient care took the form of private psychotherapy •Today •Outpatient care is the primary mode of treatment; more insurance coverage •Prevention programs are increasing; positive psychology has grown •Programs dealing with one kind of psychological problem have been created" "Multicultural Psychology - CORRECT ANSWER •A new area of study that emerged in response to the growing diversity of the United States •Multicultural psychologists seek to understand how culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and similar factors affect behavior and thought and how people of different cultures, races, and genders may differ psychologically" "Researches need to know both - CORRECT ANSWER the direction and the magnitude of the correlation" "When Can Correlations Be Trusted? - CORRECT ANSWER •Correlations can be trusted based on a statistical analysis of probability •Statistical significance: The finding is unlikely to have occurred by chance •Generally, confidence increases with the size of the sample and the magnitude of the correlation" "What Are the Merits of the Correlational Method? - CORRECT ANSWER •Advantages of the correlational method •Has high external validity (can generalize findings) •Can repeat (replicate) studies with other samples •Difficulties with correlational studies •Lack internal validity •Describe but do not explain a relationship or causation" "Research Methods - CORRECT ANSWER " "•Experiment - CORRECT ANSWER •The variable is manipulated and the manipulation's effect on another variable is observed •Manipulated variable = independent variable •Variable being observed = dependent variable" "Is animal companionship an effective intervention? - CORRECT ANSWER A ring-tailed lemur sits on the shoulder of an individual at Serengeti Park near Hodenhagen, Germany. It's part of a monthly program called "Psychiatric Animal Days" based on the premise that animals—even lemurs—have a calming effect on people. More than 400 kinds of intervention are currently used for psychological problems. An experimental design is needed to determine whether this or any other form of treatment causes clients to improve." "•Confound - CORRECT ANSWER •Variables other than the independent variable that may also be affecting the dependent variable" "•Three features to guard against confounds - CORRECT ANSWER •Control group •Random assignment •Masked (blind) design" "•Control group - CORRECT ANSWER •Research participants who are not exposed to the independent variable, but whose experience is similar to that of the experimental group •Rules of statistical significance are applied •Clinicians may also evaluate clinical significance" "By comparing the two groups, researchers can - CORRECT ANSWER better determine the effect of the independent variable." "Protecting Human Participants - CORRECT ANSWER •Researchers' primary obligation •Avoid physical or psychological harm for human participants •Institutional Review Board (IRB) •Ethics committee in a research facility empowered to protect the rights and safety of human research participants •IRBs try to ensure that each study grants the following rights to participants: •The participants enlist voluntarily. •Before enlisting, the participants are adequately informed about what the study entails ("informed consent"). •The participants can end their participation in the study at any time. •IRBs try to ensure that each study grants the following rights to participants: (cont.) •The benefits of the study outweigh its costs/risks. •The participants are protected from physical and psychological harm. •The participants have access to information about the study. •The participants' privacy is protected by principles such as confidentiality or anonymity." "Life is a longitudinal study - CORRECT ANSWER Photos of this same individual at different points in his life underscore the logic behind longitudinal studies. Just as this person's eyes, nose, and overall smile at the age of 5 seem to predict similar facial features at the ages of 35 and 55, so too might an individual's early temperament, sociability, or other psychological features sometimes predict adult characteristics. In some longitudinal studies, clinical researchers have found that a number of children who seem to be at particular risk for psychological disorders do indeed develop such disorders at later stages of their lives." "Mind Tech: The Use and Misuse of Social Media - CORRECT ANSWER •Researchers have increasingly turned to social networks for their studies •An area that has raised ethical concerns involves the direct and secret manipulation of social media users by researchers •A core problem for all social media studies is that most social media sites do not really have policies prohibiting researchers from studying subscribers or subscriber profiles without clear permission •Can an argument be made that ethical standards for studies using the Internet and social media should be different from those applied to other kinds of research?" "A national disgrace - CORRECT ANSWER In a 1997 White House ceremony, President Bill Clinton offers an official apology to 94-year-old Herman Shaw and other African American men whose syphilis went untreated by government doctors and researchers in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, a research undertaking conducted from 1932 to 1972, prior to the emergence of Institutional Review Boards. In this infamous study, 399 participants were not informed that they had the disease, and they continued to go untreated even after it was discovered that penicillin is an effective intervention for syphilis." "How Do Other Psychodynamic Explanations Differ from Freud's? - CORRECT ANSWER •Despite differences, each theory posits human functioning is shaped by dynamic (interacting) forces •Self theorists •Emphasize the unified personality •Object-relations theorists •Emphasize the human need for relationships, especially between children and caregivers" "Psychodynamic Therapies - CORRECT ANSWER •Seek to uncover past trauma and inner conflicts with the therapist acting as a guide •Free association •Therapist interpretation •Resistance •Transference •Dream interpretation •Catharsis •Working through •Current trends •Short-term psychodynamic therapies •Relational psychoanalytic therapy •" "Assessing the Psychodynamic Model - CORRECT ANSWER •Strengths •First to recognize the importance of psychological theories and systematic treatment for abnormality •Saw abnormal functioning nested in the same processes as normal functioning •Weaknesses •Unsupported ideas; difficult to research •Non-observable concepts •Inaccessible to human subjects (unconscious)" "The Cognitive-Behavioral Model - CORRECT ANSWER •Focuses on maladaptive behaviors and/or cognitions in understanding and treating psychological abnormality •Shares key principles between behavioral and cognitive perspectives •Readily accessible, observable, reportable human functioning •Empirical studies conducted in laboratories or the field, rather than case studies •Action-oriented, instructional, present-focused, directive, and structured therapies •Behavioral dimension •Using conditioning •Classical conditioning •Modeling •Operant conditioning •Therapists, as teachers, seek to help replace problematic behaviors with more appropriate behaviors •Operant conditioning: Humans and animals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards whenever they do so. •Modeling: Individuals learn responses by observing and repeating behavior. See and do: Modeling may account for some forms of abnormal behavior. A well-known study by Bandura and his colleagues (1963) demonstrated that children learned to abuse a doll by observing an adult hit it. Children who had not been exposed to the adult model did not mistreat the doll. •Cognitive dimension •Focuses on maladaptive thinking processes •Inaccurate/disturbing assumptions and attitudes •Illogical thinking •Therapists help clients recognize, challenge, and change problematic thinking •This model proposes that we can best understand abnormal functioning by looking at cognitive processes—the center of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. •It argues that clinicians must ask questions about the assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts of a client. •Cognitive-behavioral interplay •Behavioral and cognitive components are interwoven in most contemporary theories and therapies •Example: Social anxiety disorder •Anxiety levels increase when clients enter social situations; avoidance and safety behaviors appear •Exp" "Assessing the Cognitive-Behavioral Model - CORRECT ANSWER •Strengths •Powerful force in clinical field •Very broad appeal •Clinically useful •Focuses on a uniquely human process •Theories lend themselves to research •Therapies are effective in treating several disorders In surveys, 22 percent of clinical psychologists labeled their approach as "eclectic," 46 percent considered their model "cognitive" and/or "behavioral," and 18 percent called their orientation "psychodynamic." (Information from Prochaska & Norcross, 2013.) •Weaknesses •Precise role of cognition in abnormality has yet to be determined •Therapies do not help everyone •Some changes may not be possible to achieve •A new wave of therapies has emerged •Acceptance and commitment therapy Mindfulness-based techniques" "The Humanistic-Existential Model - CORRECT ANSWER •Humanist view •Emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and constructive •Focus on drive to self-actualize through honest recognition of strengths and weaknesses •Existentialist view •Emphasis on accurate self-awareness and meaningful life (authentic) •Total freedom from birth can result in negative or positive behaviors/outcomes •Psychological dysfunction is caused by self-deception Existential therapists do not believe that experimental methods can adequately test the effectiveness of their treatments; as a result, little controlled research has been conducted. •Rogers' humanistic theory and therapy •Basic human need for unconditional positive regard •If received → unconditional self-regard •If not → conditions of worth •Rogers' client-centered therapy •Therapist creates a supportive climate •Unconditional positive regard •Accurate empathy •Genuineness •Little research support but positive impact on clinical practice •Gestalt theory and therapy (Fritz Perls; 1950s) •Goal is to guide clients toward self-recognition through challenge and frustration Techniques •Skillful frustration •Role playing •Rules, including "here and now" and "I" language •Little research support; subjective experiences and self-awareness cannot be objectively measured •Spiritual views and interventions •Historical alienation between the clinical field and religion seems to be ending •Researchers suggest spirituality can correlate with psychological health •Many clinicians now encourage use of spiritual resources to cope with stressors For most of the twentieth century, clinical scientists viewed religion as a negative—or at best neutral—factor in mental health. •Existential theories and therapy •Psychological abnormality •Arises when client uses self-deception to hide from responsibilities •Clients feel overwhelmed by societal for" "Clinical Assessment: How and Why Does the Client Behave Abnormally? - other Clinical tests - CORRECT ANSWER •Neurological tests directly assess brain function by directly assessing brain structure and activity •Examples: EEG, PET scans, CT scans, MRI, fMRI Family EEG As part of a study conducted at York University in Toronto, a mother and her 5-yearold autistic child play, socialize, and share tasks while wearing nets containing EEG sensors. The electrodes attached to their scalps help measure their brain waves, and these measurements are later compared to those derived from other mothers and their non-autistic children during similar interactions. •Neuropsychological tests indirectly assess brain function by assessing cognitive, perceptual, and motor functioning •Example: Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test •Clinicians often use a battery of tests •Intelligence tests •Designed to indirectly measure intellectual ability •Typically consist of a series of tests assessing both verbal and nonverbal skills •General score is an intelligence quotient (IQ) •Represents the ratio of a person's "mental" age to his or her "chronological" age •Are among the most carefully produced of all clinical tests •Highly standardized on large groups of subjects •Have very high reliability and validity •Weaknesses •Performance can be influenced by nonintelligence •Tests may contain cultural biases in language or tasks •Members of minority groups may have less experience and be less comfortable with these types of tests, influencing their results" "Clinical Assessment: How and Why Does the Client Behave Abnormally? - •Clinical observations - CORRECT ANSWER •Naturalistic and analog observations •Naturalistic observations occur in everyday environments •Observations are generally made by "participant observers" and reported to a clinician •Reliability and validity are a concern •If naturalistic observation is impractical, analogue observations are used and conducted in artificial settings Naturalistic observations occur in everyday environments: •Can occur in homes, schools, institutions (hospitals and prisons), and community settings •Most focus on parent-child, sibling-child, or teacher-child interactions •Self-monitoring •People observe themselves and carefully record the frequency of certain behaviors, feelings, or cognitions as they occur over time •Useful in assessing infrequent or overly frequent behaviors •Provides a means of measuring private thoughts or perceptions •Validity is often a problem" "Mindtech: Psychology's WikiLeaks? - CORRECT ANSWER •In 2009, an emergency room physician posted all 10 Rorschach cards on the online encyclopedia, Wikipedia. •Many psychologists argue that the test responses of patients who have previously seen the cards on Wikipedia cannot be trusted. •Why do you think this Rorschach debate has led to an increase in the distribution of psychological tests?" "The Truth, the Whole Truth, and Nothing But the Truth - CORRECT ANSWER •Polygraphs are less trusted and used today •MRI studies are more accurate than polygraphs, but some variability and false-positive issues exist •Some suggest both techniques are best used in real-life applications •Despite evidence that these tests are often invalid, they are widely used by businesses in Colombia, where deception by employees has become a major problem. •Between 1 and 4 out of 10 truths are called lies in polygraph results, yet polygraphs are still used by the FBI, other law enforcement agencies, and some public-sector institutions." "Diagnosis: Does the Client's Syndrome Match a Known Disorder? - CORRECT ANSWER •Classification systems •Using all available information, clinicians attempt to paint a "clinical picture" and make a diagnosis •A determination that a person's psychological problems constitute a particular disorder •Based on an existing classification system Influenced by the clinician's theoretical orientation •In North America and around the world, the DSM faces competition from two other diagnostic systems •International Classification of Disorders (ICD) •Research Domain Criteria (RDoC)" "Diagnosis: Does the Client's SyndromeMatch a Known Disorder? - •DSM-5 (2013) - CORRECT ANSWER : most often used in the United States •Lists of categories, disorders, and symptom descriptions, with guidelines for assignment •Focus on clusters of symptoms (syndromes) •DSM-5 requires clinicians to provide both categorical and dimensional information as part of a proper diagnosis •Categorical information: The name of the category (disorder) indicated by the client's symptoms. •Dimensional information: A rating of how severe a client's symptoms are and how dysfunctional the client is across various dimensions of personality •DSM-5 categorical information Anxiety disorders •Generalized anxiety disorder; social anxiety disorder; panic disorder; separation anxiety disorder Depressive disorders •Major depressive disorder; persistent depressive disorder; premenstrual dysphoric disorder •DSM-5 dimensional information •Assessment of current client disorder severity •Rating scales for each disorder •Cross-Cutting Symptom Measure •Emotional Distress-Depression Scale Is DSM-5 an effective classification system? •Predictive validity is most used clinically •DSM-5 has greater validity than any previous edition •Validity is still a concern •The framers of DSM-5 followed certain procedures in their development of the new manual to help ensure that DSM-5 would have greater reliability than the previous DSMs. •A number of new diagnostic criteria and categories were developed, with the expectation that the new criteria and categories would be reliable. •Some critics continue to have concerns about the procedures used in the development of DSM-5. •The DSM-5 changes that have raised the most concern include the following: •Major depressive disorder and recent bereavement •Premenstrual dysphoric disorder category •Somatic symptom disorder category •Combination of patterns into single substance use disorder •Gambling disorder c" "Anxiety Disorder and OCD Disorder - CORRECT ANSWER " "Separation Anxiety: Not Just for Kids - CORRECT ANSWER •Most common disorder among young children •DSM-5 determined separation anxiety can develop in adults •New categorization as an anxiety disorder is controversial" "Generalized Anxiety Disorder - •Psychodynamic perspective - CORRECT ANSWER Freud posited that all children experience anxiety •Realistic anxiety when they face actual danger •Neurotic anxiety when they are prevented from expressing id impulses •Moral anxiety when they are punished for expressing id impulses •Some children experience particularly high levels of anxiety or their defense mechanisms are particularly inadequate Today's psychodynamic theorists often disagree with specific aspects of Freud's explanation. Researchers have found some support for the psychodynamic perspective: •People with GAD are particularly likely to use defense mechanisms (especially repression). •Adults, who as children suffered extreme punishment for expressing id impulses, have higher levels of anxiety later in life. Some scientists question whether these studies show what they claim to show. Psychodynamic therapies •Free association •Therapist interpretations of transference, resistance, and dreams Specific treatments for GAD •Freudians focus less on fear and more on control of id •Object-relations therapists attempt to help patients identify and settle early relationship problems •Short-term psychodynamic therapy is more effective •Controlled studies have typically found psychodynamic treatments to be of only modest help to persons with GAD. •Short-term psychodynamic therapy may be the exception to this trend." "Generalized Anxiety Disorder - •Humanistic perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •GAD arises when people stop looking at themselves honestly and acceptingly •Carl Rogers' explanation •Lack of unconditional positive regard in childhood leads to conditions of worth (i.e., harsh self-standards) •Threatening self-judgments break through and cause anxiety, setting the stage for GAD to develop •Client-centered approach used to show unconditional positive regard for clients and to empathize with them •Despite optimistic case reports, controlled studies have failed to offer strong support •Only limited support for Rogers' explanation of GAD and other forms of abnormal behavior" "Generalized Anxiety Disorder - •Cognitive-behavioral perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •Problematic behaviors and dysfunctional thinking often cause psychological disorders •Treatment focus involves the nature of behavior and thoughts •Early approach •Maladaptive or basic irrational assumptions (Ellis) •Silent assumptions (Beck) Initially, theorists suggested that GAD is caused by maladaptive assumptions. Albert Ellis identified basic irrational assumptions: •It is a dire necessity for an adult human being to be loved or approved of by virtually every significant person in his community. •It is awful and catastrophic when things are not the way one would very much like them to be. •When these assumptions are applied to everyday life and to more and more events, GAD may develop. Aaron Beck, another cognitive theorist, argued that persons with GAD constantly hold silent assumptions that imply imminent danger: •A situation/person is unsafe until proved safe. •It is always best to assume the worst. Researchers have repeatedly found that people with GAD do hold maladaptive assumptions, particularly about dangerousness. •Newer explanations •Metacognitive theory (Wells) and meta-worries •Intolerance of uncertainty theory (Koerner and colleagues) •Avoidance theory (Borkovec) How Long Do Your Worries Last? In one survey, 62 percent of college students said they spend less than 10 minutes at a time worrying about something. In contrast, 20 percent worry for more than an hour. (Information from Tallis, 2015, 2014; Tallis et al., 1994.) In recent years, several new explanations have emerged: •Metacognitive theory: Developed by Wells; suggests that the most problematic assumptions in GAD are the individual's worry about worrying (meta-worry) •Uncertainty theory: Certain individuals consider it unacceptable that negative events may occur, even if the possibility is very small; they worry in an effort to find "corr" "Generalized Anxiety Disorder - •Cognitive-behavioral therapies - CORRECT ANSWER •Changing maladaptive assumptions •Ellis's rational-emotive therapy (RET) Breaking down worrying •Mindfulness-based cognitive-behavioral therapy •Acceptance and commitment therapy •" "Generalized Anxiety Disorder - •Biological perspective - CORRECT ANSWER GAD is caused chiefly by biological factors •Supported by family pedigree studies and brain researchers •Challenged by competing explanation of shared environment •Fear reactions are tied to brain circuits •Biological relatives more likely to have GAD (approximately 15 percent): The closer the relative, the greater the likelihood. •There is, however, a competing explanation of shared environment. •GAD results from a hyperactive fear circuit •GABA: Important neurotransmitter in this circuit Involves several brain structures •Prefrontal cortex •Anterior cingulate cortex •Insula •Amygdala •Bed nucleus of stria terminals (BNST) may play large or larger role than other structures The Biology of Anxiety The circuit in the brain that helps produce anxiety reactions includes structures such as the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and insula (not visible from this view of the brain). In normal fear reactions: •Key neurons fire more rapidly, creating a general state of excitability experienced as fear or anxiety. •A feedback system is triggered, so that brain and body activities work to reduce excitability. •Some neurons release GABA to inhibit neuron firing, thereby reducing experience of fear or anxiety. Malfunctions in the feedback system are believed to cause GAD. •Possible reasons: Too few receptors, ineffective receptors Recent research has complicated the picture: •Other neurotransmitters also bind to GABA receptors. Issue of causal relationships: •Do physiological events CAUSE anxiety? •How can we know? •What are alternative explanations? •Drug therapy •Early 1950s: Barbiturates (sedative-hypnotics) •Late 1950s: Benzodiazepines •More recently: Antidepressant and antipsychotic medications Benzodiazepines: •Provide temporary, modest relief •Rebound anxiety with withdrawal and cessation of us" "Phobias - CORRECT ANSWER •Fear •A normal and common experience •How do phobias differ from fear? •More intense and persistent fear •Greater desire to avoid the feared object or situation •Create distress that interferes with functioning Categories of phobias •Specific phobias •Agoraphobia •Persistent and unreasonable fears of particular objects, activities, or situations •Avoidance of the object or thoughts about it" "Phobias - •Specific Phobias - CORRECT ANSWER •Yearly symptoms exist in 10 percent of all U.S. people •14 percent of people experience symptoms during lifetime •Women outnumber men 2:1 •32 percent seek treatment •Checklist •Marked, persistent, and disproportionate fear of a particular object or situation; usually lasting at least 6 months •Exposure to the object produces immediate fear •Avoidance of the feared situation •Significant distress or impairment Most common phobias: Specific animals or insects, heights, enclosed spaces, thunderstorms, and blood Information from APA, 2013." "Phobias - •Agoraphobia - CORRECT ANSWER •Yearly symptoms exist in 1.7 percent of U.S. population •2.6 percent of people experience symptoms during lifetime; gender differences •46 percent seek treatment •Checklist •Pronounced, disproportionate, or repeated fear about being in at least two delineated situations •Avoidance of the agoraphobic situations •Symptoms usually continue for at least 6 months •Significant distress or impairment; often fluctuates Pronounced, disproportionate, or repeated fear about being in at least two of the following situations: •Public transportation (e.g., auto or plane travel) •Parking lots, bridges, or other open spaces •Shops, theaters, or other confined places •Lines or crowds •Away from home unaccompanied Fear of such agoraphobic situations derives from a concern that it would be hard to escape or get help if panic, embarrassment, or disabling symptoms were to occur. Information from APA, 2013." "Phobias - What causes specific phobias? - CORRECT ANSWER •Evidence supports the behavioral explanations •Cognitive-behavioral theory •Behavioral-evolutionary explanation Phobias, not Although these young women cling tightly to each other, frozen with fear as they try to walk across a bridge, they are not displaying abnormal fear or a phobia. A closer look reveals that the bridge, which stands 600 feet high and spans 1000 feet, has a glass floor, the first of its kind in China. Almost all visitors to this new tourist destination initially experience the same emotional reaction— overwhelming and near-paralyzing fear." "Phobia - •Cognitive-behavioral perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •How are fears learned? Classical conditioning •US: Entrapment à UR: Fear •CS: Running water à CR: Fear Modeling •Observation •Imitation Phobias develop through modeling: •Observation and imitation Phobias are maintained through avoidance. Phobias may develop into GAD when a person acquires a large number of them. •Process of stimulus generalization: Responses to one stimulus are also elicited by similar stimuli. What does research indicate? •Early laboratory studies of classical conditioning of fear: Watson and Rayner (Little Albert) •Modeling: Bandura and Rosenthal Fear reactions not always conditioned •McGabe and Gamble and colleagues •Disorder not ordinarily acquired through classical conditioning or modeling" "Phobias - •Behavioral-evolutionary perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •Some specific phobias are much more common than others •Species-specific biological predisposition to develop certain fears: preparedness •Explains why some phobias (snakes, spiders) are more common than others (meat, houses) •Is a mouse's fear of cats a conditioned reaction or genetically hardwired? Scientists at Tokyo University used genetic engineering to switch off this rodent's instinct to cower at the smell or presence of cats. But mouse beware! The cat has not been genetically engineered to act in a corresponding manner. •Treatments for specific phobias •Actual contact with the feared object or situation is key to greater success in all forms of exposure treatment •Systematic desensitization (Wolpe) •Covert and in vivo desensitization, including virtual reality •Flooding Modeling Since relaxation is incompatible with fear, the relaxation response is thought to substitute for the fear response. •Teach relaxation skills → Create fear hierarchy → Pair relaxation with the feared objects or situations •Types: •In vivo desensitization (live) •Covert desensitization (imaginal)" "Phobias - •Treatments for agoraphobia - CORRECT ANSWER •Older approaches are less successful •Newer, more successful treatments Variety of exposure therapy approaches •Support groups •Home-based self-help programs •Are successful for about 70 percent of agoraphobic clients Relapses may occur, especially when panic disorder also exists •Often explained in ways similar to specific phobias •Many people with agoraphobia experience extreme and sudden explosions of fear, called panic attacks, •Such individuals may receive two diagnoses—agoraphobia and panic disorder." "Social Anxiety Disorder - CORRECT ANSWER •Yearly symptoms exist in 8 percent of U.S. population •13 percent of people experience symptoms during lifetime •Non-Hispanic white Americans more likely to experience than African, Hispanic, or Asian Americans •Often begins in late childhood or adolescence and into adulthood •40 percent seek treatment •Checklist •Pronounced, disproportionate, and repeated anxiety about social situation(s) in which the individual could be exposed to scrutiny by others; typically lasting 6 months or more •Fear of being negatively evaluated by or offensive to others •Exposure to the social situation almost always produces anxiety •Avoidance of feared situations •Significant distress or impairment Marked, disproportionate, and persistent fears about one or more social situations. •May be narrow: Talking, performing, eating, or writing in public •May be broad: General fear of functioning poorly in front of others •In both forms, people rate themselves as performing less competently than they actually do. Information from APA, 2013." "Social Anxiety Disorder - •Cognitive-behavioral perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •Leading explanation for this disorder features cognitive and behavioral factors •Group of social-realm dysfunctional beliefs and expectations held •Anticipation of social disasters and dread of social situations •Avoidance and safety behaviors performed to reduce or prevent these disasters Cognitive theorists hold that, because of these beliefs, people with social anxiety disorder keep anticipating that social disasters will occur, and they repeatedly perform "avoidance" and "safety" behaviors to help prevent or reduce such disasters." "Social Anxiety Disorder - •Treatments for social anxiety disorder - CORRECT ANSWER •Overwhelming social fears: Addressed behaviorally with exposure •Cognitive-behavioral therapy: Exposure therapy and systematic therapy discussions •Medications: Benzodiazepine or antidepressant drugs •Lack of social skills Social skills and assertiveness training Unlike specific phobias, social anxiety disorders are often reduced through medication (particularly antidepressants). Several types of psychotherapy have proved at least as effective as medication. •People treated with psychotherapy are less likely to relapse than people treated with drugs alone. •One psychological approach is exposure therapy, either in an individual or a group setting. •Cognitive therapies have also been widely used. Another treatment option is social skills training, a combination of several behavioral techniques to help people improve their social functioning. •Therapists provide feedback and reinforcement. •Social skills training groups and assertiveness training groups allow clients to practice their skills with other group members." "MindTech: Social Media Jitters - CORRECT ANSWER •Computer and mobile device use can produce more common forms of anxiety, including social and generalized anxiety Facebook, Instagram, or Snapchat" "Panic Disorder - •Panic attacks - CORRECT ANSWER •Periodic, short bouts of panic that occur suddenly, reach a peak within minutes, and gradually pass •Feature at least four of the following symptoms of panic: •Heart palpitations •Tingling in the hands or feet •Shortness of breath •Sweating •Hot and cold flashes •Trembling •Chest pains •Choking sensations •Faintness •Dizziness Feeling of unreality (APA, 2013) •Women are twice as likely as men to be affected. •Poor people are 50 percent more likely than wealthier people to experience these disorders. •The prevalence is the same across cultural and racial groups in the United States and seems to occur in cultures across the world. •Approximately 35 percent of persons with panic disorder are in treatment." "Panic Disorder - CORRECT ANSWER •3.1 percent of U.S. population experience this disorder yearly •More than 5 percent of people experience symptoms during lifetime •Often begins in late adolescence or early adulthood •Non-Hispanic white Americans more likely to experience than U.S. racial-ethnic minority groups •59 percent seek treatment •May be accompanied by agoraphobia •Checklist •Unforeseen panic attacks occur repeatedly •One or more of the attacks precede either of the following symptoms: •At least a month of continual concern about having additional attacks •At least a month of dysfunctional behavior changes associated with the attacks (e.g., avoiding new experiences)" "Panic Disorder - •Biological perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •Initial theory •Panic attacks caused by abnormal norepinephrine activity in locus coeruleus •More recent theory •Brain circuits and amygdala are the more complex root of the problem •May be an inherited predisposition to abnormalities in these areas •Caused by a hyperactive panic circuit •Amygdala •Hippocampus •Ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus •Central gray matter Locus coeruleus The Biology of Panic The circuit in the brain that helps produce panic reactions includes structures such as the amygdala, hippocampus, ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus, central gray matter, and locus coeruleus." "Panic Disorder - •Drug therapies - CORRECT ANSWER •Various antidepressants bring some improvement to more than two-thirds of patients •Function in norepinephrine receptors in the panic brain circuit •Improvements require maintenance of drug therapy •Some benzodiazepines (especially Xanax [alprazolam]) have proved helpful" "Panic Disorder - •Cognitive-behavioral perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •Biological factors are only part of the cause of panic attacks •Bodily sensations are misinterpreted as signs of medical catastrophe and controlled by avoidance and safety behaviors •Anxiety sensitivity may exist •Biological challenge test •Procedure used to produce panic and assess panic disorder Misinterpreting bodily sensations •Panic-prone people may be very sensitive to certain bodily sensations and may misinterpret them as signs of a medical catastrophe; this leads to panic. •Why might some people be prone to such misinterpretations? •Experience more frequent or intense bodily sensations •Have experienced more trauma-filled events •Whatever the precise cause, panic-prone people generally have a high degree of "anxiety sensitivity." •They focus on bodily sensations much of the time, are unable to assess the sensations logically, and interpret them as potentially harmful." "Panic Disorder - •Cognitive therapy - CORRECT ANSWER •Seeks to correct people's misinterpretations of their bodily sensations •Educate about the nature of panic attacks •Teach applications of more accurate interpretations •Teach skills for coping with anxiety, including biological challenge procedures Cognitive treatments often help people with panic disorder. •Approximately 80 percent of treated patients are panic-free for two years compared with 13 percent of control subjects. •Such treatments also are helpful for treating panic with agoraphobia; in those cases, therapists often add exposure techniques to the cognitive aspects of treatment. •At least as helpful as antidepressants Combination therapy may be most effective. •Still under investigation" "•Obsessions - CORRECT ANSWER •Persistent thoughts, ideas, impulses, or images that seem to invade a person's consciousness" "Compulsions - CORRECT ANSWER •Repetitive and rigid behaviors or mental acts that people feel they must perform to prevent or reduce anxiety" "Normal Routines - CORRECT ANSWER Most people find it comforting to follow set routines when they carry out everyday activities, and, in fact, 40 percent become irritated if they must depart from their routines. (Information from: Kanner, 2005, 1998, 1995.)" "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - •OCD - CORRECT ANSWER •Related to other disorders in features, causes, and treatment responsiveness •Affects 1 to 2 percent of world population •Begins in childhood or young adulthood; fluctuating severity •Equally common among men and women and racial and ethnic groups 40 percent seek treatment •Checklist •Occurrence of repeated obsessions, compulsions, or both •The obsessions or compulsions take up considerable time •Significant distress or impairment •Classified as an anxiety disorder because obsessions cause anxiety, while compulsions are aimed at preventing or reducing anxiety •Anxiety rises if obsessions or compulsions are resisted. •Between 1 percent and 2 percent of U.S. population suffer from OCD in a given year, and as many as 3 percent over a lifetime. •Equally common in men and women and among different racial and ethnic groups" "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - •Obsessions - CORRECT ANSWER •Features •Thoughts that feel both intrusive and foreign •Attempts to ignore or resist them trigger anxiety •Basic themes •Dirt/contamination •Violence and aggression •Orderliness •Religion Sexuality" "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - Compulsions - CORRECT ANSWER • Features •Various forms of voluntary behaviors or mental acts •Feel mandatory/unstoppable •Most people recognize that their behaviors are unreasonable •Performing behaviors reduces anxiety for a short time •Behaviors often develop into rituals Themes •Cleaning •Checking •Order or balance •Touching, verbalizing, and/or counting Most people with OCD experience both obsessions and compulsions. •Compulsive acts often occur in response to obsessive thoughts. •Compulsions seem to represent a yielding to obsessions. •Compulsions sometimes serve to help control obsessions." "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - •Psychodynamic perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •Theory •Battle between the id and the ego defense mechanisms lessens anxiety in overt thoughts and actions •Freud: OCD related to the anal stage of development •Not all psychodynamic theorists agree •Treatment •Classical techniques of free association and therapist interpretation; have little research support •Short-term psychodynamic therapies are more direct and action-oriented Three ego defense mechanisms are common: •Isolation: Disown disturbing thoughts •Undoing: Perform acts to "cancel out" thoughts •Reaction formation: Take on lifestyle in contrast to unacceptable impulses Psychodynamic therapies •Goals are to uncover and overcome underlying conflicts and defenses. •Main techniques are free association and interpretation. •Research has offered little evidence to support the therapies. •Some therapists now prefer to treat these patients with short-term psychodynamic therapies." "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - •Cognitive-behavioral perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •Disorder grows from human tendencies to have unwanted and unpleasant thoughts •To avoid negative outcomes, individuals attempt to neutralize their thoughts with actions (or other thoughts) •Seeking reassurance •Thinking "good" thoughts •Washing •Checking •Everyone has repetitive, unwanted, and intrusive thoughts. •People with OCD blame themselves for normal (although repetitive and intrusive) thoughts and expect that terrible things will happen as a result." "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - •Behavioral therapy - CORRECT ANSWER •Focus on the cognitive processes that help to produce and maintain obsessive thoughts and compulsive acts •Use exposure and response prevention exercises (ERP) (Meyer) •Set example •Use videoconferencing in recent years •Between 50 and 70 percent improvement with therapy People with OCD tend to: •Be more depressed than others •Have exceptionally high standards of conduct and morality •Believe thoughts are equal to actions and are capable of bringing harm •Believe that they can, and should, have perfect control over their thoughts and behaviors" "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - •Biological perspective - CORRECT ANSWER •Early research •Family pedigree and twin studies •Recent research •Abnormal serotonin activity •Abnormal brain structure and functioning •Some research evidence suggests these two lines may be connected The brain circuit that has been linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder includes structures such as the orbitofrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, striatum, thalamus, and amygdala. Abnormal serotonin activity: •Evidence that serotonin-based antidepressants reduce OCD symptoms •Recent studies have suggested other neurotransmitters also may play important roles Abnormal brain structure and functioning: •OCD linked to orbitofrontal cortex and caudate nuclei •Frontal cortex and caudate nuclei make up the brain circuit that converts sensory information into thoughts and actions •Either area may be too active, letting through troublesome thoughts and actions Some research provides evidence that these two lines may be connected. •Serotonin (with other neurotransmitters) plays a key role in the operation of the orbitofrontal cortex and the caudate nuclei. •Abnormal neurotransmitter activity could contribute to the improper functioning of the circuit." "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - •Biological treatment - CORRECT ANSWER •Serotonin-based antidepressants •Clomipramine (Anafranil) and similar drugs •Improvement in 50 to 80 percent of those with OCD •Relapse occurs if medication is stopped •Research suggests that combination therapy (medication + cognitive-behavioral therapy approaches) may be most effective" "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - •Obsessive-compulsive-related disorders - CORRECT ANSWER •DSM-5 created obsessive-compulsive-related disorders •Hoarding disorder •Trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder) •Excoriation (skin-picking) disorder •Body dysmorphic disorder A messy aftermath This man prepares to clean out his mother's home after her death. This is not an easy task—emotionally or physically—under the best of circumstances, but it is particularly difficult in this instance: his mother had suffered from hoarding disorder." "Integrating the Models - CORRECT ANSWER •Developmental psychopathology perspective •Examination of how key factors emerge and intersect at points throughout the life span General foci •Genetic factors •Hyperactive fear circuit in brain •Inhibited temperament •Parenting style •Maladaptive thinking •Avoidance behaviors •Life stress Negative social factors" "1. Biological model: - CORRECT ANSWER The biological model of abnormal psychology says that psychological problems are caused by biological issues." "1. Psychodynamic model: - CORRECT ANSWER believe that a person's behavior, whether normal or abnormal, is determined largely by underlying psychological forces of which he or she is not consciously aware." "1. Behavioral model: - CORRECT ANSWER Behavioral models are models of the dynamic behavior of the system as it is executing. They show what happens or what is supposed to happen when a system responds to a stimulus from its environment." "1. Cognitive model: - CORRECT ANSWER A cognitive model is an approximation to animal cognitive processes (predominantly human) for the purposes of comprehension and prediction." "1. Humanistic model: - CORRECT ANSWER believe that human beings are born with a natural tendency to be friendly, cooperative, and constructive. People, these theorists propose, are driven to self-actualize—that is, to fulfill their potential for goodness and growth." "psychoanalysis - CORRECT ANSWER a system of psychological theory and therapy which aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association." "sociocultural model - CORRECT ANSWER abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the broad forces that influence an individual. What are the norms of the individual's society and culture? What roles does the person play in the social environment? What kind of family structure or cultural background is the person a part of? And how do other people view and react to him or her? In fact, the sociocultural model is composed of two major perspectives—the family-social perspective and the multicultural perspective." "The psychodynamic model is - CORRECT ANSWER the oldest and most famous of the modern psychological models" "Psychodynamic theorists believe that a person's behavior, whether normal or abnormal, is determined largely by - CORRECT ANSWER underlying psychological forces of which he or she is not consciously aware. These internal forces are described as dynamic—that is, they interact with one another—and their interaction gives rise to behavior, thoughts, and emotions. Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the result of conflicts between these forces." "There are many types of therapy available. Three of the more common methods used in depression treatment include - CORRECT ANSWER cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, and psychodynamic therapy. Often, a blended approach is used." "Common behavioral therapy methods include: - CORRECT ANSWER aversion, which is pairing a behavior with a punishment until the behavior stops; desensitization, a process of introducing stress in increments so clients can learn to control their response to it; role playing, or the learning of proper behavior by practice or by modeling" "Rapprochement Movement - CORRECT ANSWER a movement to identify a set of common factors, or common strategies, that run through all successful therapies" "The Elusive Nature of Abnormality - CORRECT ANSWER •Abnormality is defined by general criteria in society. •Criteria are used to judge particular cases. •Szasz posits that societal involvement may invalidate the concept of mental illness. •Any definition of abnormality may be unable to be applied consistently." "Szaz - CORRECT ANSWER •Deviations called "abnormal" are only "problems of living." •Societies invent the concept of mental illness to better control or change people who threaten the social order. •In short, although abnormality generally is defined as behavior that is deviant, distressful, dysfunctional, and sometimes dangerous, these criteria often are vague and subjective. •Few categories of abnormality are as clear-cut as they seem; most continue to be debated by clinicians." "what behaviors fit the criteria of deviant, distressful, dysfunctional, or dangerous but would not be considered abnormal by most people? - CORRECT ANSWER excessive drinking of college age people" "Treatment or therapy - CORRECT ANSWER •Procedure designed to change abnormal behavior into more normal behavior •Definitional challenges closely related to defining abnormality" "•Essential features of all therapy forms - CORRECT ANSWER •Sufferer or patient •Trained, socially accepted healer or therapist •Series of therapeutic contacts between the healer and the sufferer •Despite their differences, most clinicians agree that large numbers of people need therapy of one kind or another" "•A trained, socially accepted healer, - CORRECT ANSWER whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer and his or her social group" "•A sufferer - CORRECT ANSWER who seeks relief from the healer" "•A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer tries to produce certain changes - CORRECT ANSWER in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and behavior" "How Was Abnormality Viewed and Treated in the Past? - CORRECT ANSWER •Every society, past and present, has witnessed psychological abnormality. •Many present-day ideas and treatments have roots in the past." "Ancient Views and Treatments - CORRECT ANSWER •Ancient societies •Probably regarded abnormal behavior as the work of evil spirits •May have begun as far back as the Stone Age •Treatment •Trephination and exorcism" "Greek and Roman Views and Treatments - CORRECT ANSWER •500 b.c. to 500 a.d. •Philosophers and physicians offered different explanations and treatments for abnormal behaviors •Hippocrates believed and taught that illnesses had natural causes; four humors •Treatment •Quiet life •Vegetable diet •Temperance •Exercise •Celibacy •Bleeding" "Europe in the Middle Ages: Demonology Returns - CORRECT ANSWER •500-1350 a.d. •Church rejected scientific forms of investigation and controlled all education •Mental disorders had demonic causes; mass madness; shared delusions and hallucinations •At the close of the Middle Ages, demonology and its methods began to lose favor again •Treatment •Exorcism •Torture •Gradually hospitalization" "The Renaissance and the Rise of Asylums - CORRECT ANSWER • a.d. •With increased scientific knowledge, demonological views of abnormality continued to decline •Weyer was the first mental health physician; believed that the mind was as susceptible to sickness as the body •Care at religious shrines (e.g., Gheel) was the precursor of community health programs •Asylums emerged by the mid-sixteenth century" "The Nineteenth Century: Reform and Moral Treatment - CORRECT ANSWER •Nineteenth century •Care of people with mental disorders began to improve •Pinel (France) and Tuke (England) •Advocated moral treatment that emphasized humane and respectful techniques •Moral treatment movement ended in the United States and Europe by the early twentieth century •Benjamin Rush (father of American psychiatry) and Dorothea Dix (Boston schoolteacher) •Promoted moral treatment in the United States •Movement disintegrated in the late nineteenth century; mental hospitals warehoused inmates and provided minimal care" "By the end of the nineteenth century, several factors led to a reversal of the moral treatment movement: - CORRECT ANSWER •Money and staff shortages •Declining recovery rates •Overcrowding •Emergence of prejudice" "By the early years of the twentieth century, the moral treatment movement had - CORRECT ANSWER ground to a halt; long-term hospitalization became the rule once again." "The Early Twentieth Century: Dual Perspectives - Somatogenic perspective: - CORRECT ANSWER Abnormal functioning has physical causes Two factors responsible for the rebirth of this perspective •Emil Kraepelin: Physical factors are responsible for mental dysfunction •New biological discoveries linked such things as untreated syphilis and general paresis •Results were generally disappointing until effective medication was developed" "The Early Twentieth Century: Dual Perspectives - Psychogenic perspective - CORRECT ANSWER Abnormal functioning has psychological causes Rise in popularity based on work with hypnotism •Mesmer: Hysterical disorders •Freud: Psychoanalysis; outpatient therapy Psychoanalytic theory and treatment became widely accepted" "The Increasing Influence of Insurance Coverage - CORRECT ANSWER •Today the dominant form of insurance coverage is the managed care program, in which the insurance company determines key care issues •The dominant form of insurance for people in the United States consists of managed care programs •Reimbursements for mental disorders tend to be lower than those for medical disorders •In 2008, a federal parity law went into effect; in 2014, the Affordable Care Act (ACT) went into effect In 2011, a federal parity law went into effect." "What Are Today's Leading Theories and Professions? - CORRECT ANSWER Numerous theoretical perspectives •Psychoanalytic •Biological •Cognitive-behavioral •Humanistic-existential •Sociocultural •Developmental psychopathology No single perspective dominates the clinical field A variety of professionals offer help to people with psychological problems" "Technology and Mental Health - CORRECT ANSWER •The digital world provides new triggers and vehicles for the expression of abnormal behavior •The multitude of digital distractions provides the foundation for shorter attention spans •Use of tele-mental health services rapidly increasing •Mental health apps in the marketplace are increasing sharply •Enormous volume of Web-based misinformation" "What Do Clinical Researchers Do? - CORRECT ANSWER •Research is the systematic search for facts through the use of careful observations and investigations •Clinical researchers •Discover universal laws and principles of abnormal psychological functioning •Search for nomothetic understanding of nature, causes, and treatment •Do not typically assess, diagnose, or treat individual clients •Rely on the scientific method to pinpoint relationships between variables •Clinical researchers depend on three methods of investigation •Case study •Correlational method •Experimental method" "•How are case studies helpful? - CORRECT ANSWER •Detailed, interpretative description of a person's life and psychological problems •Source of new ideas about behavior •Tentative support for a theory •Challenge of a theory's assumptions •Introduction of new therapeutic techniques •Opportunities to study unusual problems" "•What are the limitations of case studies? - CORRECT ANSWER •Biased observers •Subjective evidence (low internal validity) •Little basis for generalization (low external validity)" "The Correlational Method - CORRECT ANSWER •Correlation •Degree to which events or characteristics vary with each other •Positive correlation •Negative correlation •Unrelated •Correlational method •Research procedure used to determine the co-relationship between variables •Subjects or participants •People chosen for study are collectively called a sample •Sample must be representative of the larger population" "•Random assignment - CORRECT ANSWER •Any selection procedure that ensures that every participant in the experiment is as likely to be placed in one group as another" "•Masked (blind) design - CORRECT ANSWER •Experiment in which participants do not know which assigned group they are in •Placebo therapy" "•Double-masked design - CORRECT ANSWER •Experiment in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of the groups to which participants are assigned" "Researchers must also watch out for - CORRECT ANSWER differences in the makeup of the experimental and control groups." "Alternative Research Designs - CORRECT ANSWER •Clinical researchers often must settle for designs that are less than ideal and include quasi-experimental designs •Matched designs •Natural experiments •Analogue experiments •Single-subject experiments •Longitudinal studies Epidemiological studies •Matched (mixed) designs •Participants are not randomly assigned to groups, but rather placed in existing groups •Matched control groups are used to address confounds based on demographic and other variables These groups are matched to the experimental group based on demographic and other variables." "Alternative Experimental Designs - CORRECT ANSWER •Natural experiments •Nature manipulates the independent variable and the experimenter observes the effects •Events cannot be replicated at will Broad generalizations cannot be drawn from a single study •Analogue experiments •Independent variables are freely manipulated while ethical and practical limitations are avoided •Laboratory subjects are induced to behave in ways that resemble real life •Experimenters cannot be certain that phenomena observed in the lab are the same as the psychological disorders being investigated •Animals are often used as participants •Single-subject experiment •A single participant is observed before and after manipulation of the independent variable •Experiments rely on baseline data to set a standard for comparison •Has higher internal validity than the case study because the independent variable is manipulated •ABAB (reversal) design" "Special Forms of Correlational Research - CORRECT ANSWER •Longitudinal studies (high-risk or developmental studies) •Same individuals are observed on many occasions over a long period •Independent variable manipulation or random assignment of participants to conditions is not possible •Causes cannot be pinpointed •Epidemiological studies •Reveal the incidence and prevalence of a disorder in a particular population •Incidence: Number of new cases that emerge in a given period •Prevalence: Total number of cases in a given period Studies •Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study (Cottler et al.) •National Comorbidity Survey National Comorbidity Survey Replication" "Similar enough? - CORRECT ANSWER Celebrity chimpanzee Cheetah, age 59, does some painting along with her friend and trainer. Chimps and human beings share more than 90 percent of their genetic material, but their brains and bodies are very different, as are their perceptions and experiences. Thus, abnormal- like behavior produced in animal analogue experiments may differ from the human abnormality under study." "Models of Abnormality - CORRECT ANSWER •Models or paradigms used by scientists and clinicians to treat abnormality •Explain events and basic assumptions •Guide treatment techniques and principles •Involve several models to explain abnormality" "•Models influence - CORRECT ANSWER what investigators observe, the questions they ask, the information they seek, and how they interpret this information." "•Sometimes in conflict, each model focuses on - CORRECT ANSWER one aspect of human functioning and no single model can explain all aspects of abnormality." "The Biological Model - CORRECT ANSWER •Has biological basis and medical perspective •Considers illness to be brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organism Points to problems in brain anatomy or brain chemistry Full understanding of thoughts, emotions, and behavior must include understanding of their biological basis." "How Do Biological Theorists Explain Abnormal Behavior? (part 1) - CORRECT ANSWER •Brain anatomy •Neurons and glia cells •Brain structures •Cerebrum (cortex, corpus callosum, basal ganglia, hippocampus, amygdala) •Connections found among some psychological disorders and specific brains structures •Brain chemistry •Neuron-to-neuron transmission •Dendrites •Axons •Nerve endings •Synapses •Neurotransmitters •Receptors A message in the