Samenvatting Hoofdstuk 2 t/m 12 + aantekeningen hoorcolleges
+ testvragen!
,Inhoudsopgave
2 Theories of development................................................................................................ 1
Introduction: What is a theory?............................................................................................................. 1
theories of human development........................................................................................................... 1
Psychodynamic theory....................................................................................................................... 1
psychosocial theory............................................................................................................................ 2
Developmental task theory................................................................................................................ 3
Behaviourisme en sociaal leren.......................................................................................................... 3
the ethological perspective................................................................................................................ 4
evolutionary developmental theory (evo-devo psychologie)..............................................................5
bio-ecologisch model van ontwikkeling.............................................................................................. 5
life course theory/ levenslooptheorie................................................................................................. 6
dynamic systems theory.................................................................................................................... 7
cognitive developmental theories......................................................................................................... 7
Jean piaget’s theory of cognitive development..................................................................................7
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development................................................................................7
Information processing accounts of development..............................................................................8
Theories of human development........................................................................................................... 8
cognitive development theories............................................................................................................ 9
3 the biological foundations of Development I: Physical Growth, motor development and
genetics......................................................................................................................... 10
the course of physical growth............................................................................................................. 10
prenatal development...................................................................................................................... 10
fetal learning.................................................................................................................................... 11
birth................................................................................................................................................. 11
prematurity...................................................................................................................................... 11
patterns of growth............................................................................................................................ 11
environmental factors in physical growth: nutrition.........................................................................11
motor development............................................................................................................................. 12
maturation vs. experience................................................................................................................ 12
gross and fine motor development................................................................................................... 13
motor development as a dynamic system........................................................................................ 13
the development of motor skills beyond infancy..............................................................................13
genetics.............................................................................................................................................. 13
genes and environments.................................................................................................................. 14
behaviour genetics........................................................................................................................... 14
heritability........................................................................................................................................ 14
epigenetics.......................................................................................................................................... 15
research designs in behaviour genetics........................................................................................... 15
5 the biological foundations of development II: the developing braing..............................16
micro-level structures of the brain...................................................................................................... 16
developmental neuroscience.............................................................................................................. 16
research example 5.2....................................................................................................................... 16
synaptic proliferation and pruning.................................................................................................... 17
myelination...................................................................................................................................... 17
neuroplasticity.................................................................................................................................. 17
sensitive periods.............................................................................................................................. 18
growth spurts................................................................................................................................... 18
, brain stimulation.............................................................................................................................. 19
6 perception................................................................................................................... 20
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 20
why study perception.......................................................................................................................... 20
theories of perceptual development................................................................................................... 20
piaget’s theory of perceptual development......................................................................................21
gibson’s theory of perceptual development.....................................................................................21
ways of studying perceptual development in infants..........................................................................21
the development of the sense............................................................................................................. 21
touch................................................................................................................................................ 21
taste................................................................................................................................................. 21
smell................................................................................................................................................ 22
hearing............................................................................................................................................. 22
the development of vision................................................................................................................... 23
visual acuity..................................................................................................................................... 23
color vision....................................................................................................................................... 23
pattern perception........................................................................................................................... 23
object perception............................................................................................................................. 24
face perception................................................................................................................................ 24
depth perception.............................................................................................................................. 24
intermodal perception...................................................................................................................... 24
perceptual development across the life span......................................................................................25
7 theories of cognitive development................................................................................26
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 26
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development........................................................................................... 26
an overview of piagetian theory: key concepts................................................................................26
the sensorimotor stage.................................................................................................................... 26
early understanding of object permanence......................................................................................26
the preoperational stage.................................................................................................................. 27
the concrete operational stage......................................................................................................... 27
the formal operational stage............................................................................................................ 28
criticisms of piagetian theory........................................................................................................... 28
educational applications of piaget’s theory......................................................................................28
vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development..................................................................29
the zone of proximal development................................................................................................... 29
language and play............................................................................................................................ 29
the implications of vygotsky’s theory for education.........................................................................29
criticisms of vygotsky’s theory......................................................................................................... 30
information processing theories.......................................................................................................... 30
the information processing system.................................................................................................. 30
a neo-piagetian theory of cognitive development............................................................................30
connectionism.................................................................................................................................. 31
8 cognitive processes..................................................................................................... 32
attention............................................................................................................................................. 32
aspects of attention.......................................................................................................................... 32
attention strategies.......................................................................................................................... 32
attention as a cognitive resource..................................................................................................... 32
memory............................................................................................................................................... 32
, retrieving memory............................................................................................................................ 33
memory strategies........................................................................................................................... 33
metacognition..................................................................................................................................... 33
problem solving................................................................................................................................... 34
9 development of language and communication...............................................................35
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 35
theories of language development...................................................................................................... 35
learning theory................................................................................................................................. 35
nativist theory.................................................................................................................................. 35
interactionist views.......................................................................................................................... 35
preverbal communication................................................................................................................... 36
phonological development.................................................................................................................. 36
semantic development........................................................................................................................ 36
first words........................................................................................................................................ 37
theories of smantic development..................................................................................................... 37
errors in early semantic development..............................................................................................37
semantic development beyond the preschool years........................................................................37
the development of syntax/ grammar................................................................................................. 37
first sentences.................................................................................................................................. 38
the development of pragmatics.......................................................................................................... 38
becoming an effective communicator.............................................................................................. 38
Nonliteral language.......................................................................................................................... 39
metalinguistic ability........................................................................................................................ 39
10 emotional development.............................................................................................. 40
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 40
the development of emotional expressions......................................................................................... 40
early emotions................................................................................................................................. 40
emotionale development beyond infancy.........................................................................................40
the development of emotional understanding.....................................................................................40
using emotional information: social referencing...............................................................................40
the development of complex emotions............................................................................................41
understanding multiple emotions..................................................................................................... 41
emotion scripts................................................................................................................................. 41
emotion regulation.............................................................................................................................. 41
emotional intelligence...................................................................................................................... 41
culture and emotion......................................................................................................................... 42
the development of attachment.......................................................................................................... 42
bowbly’s theory of attachment......................................................................................................... 42
the development of the attachment relationship.............................................................................42
quality of attachment and the strange situation..............................................................................42
stability of attachment..................................................................................................................... 43
the consequences of attachment relationships................................................................................43
attachment and culture.................................................................................................................... 43
temperament...................................................................................................................................... 43
defining temperament...................................................................................................................... 43
the measurement of temperament.................................................................................................. 44
the continuity of temperament......................................................................................................... 44
googness of fit.................................................................................................................................. 44
, temperament and adjustment.......................................................................................................... 44
11 social development.................................................................................................... 45
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 45
theories of social development........................................................................................................... 45
types of play and their functions......................................................................................................... 45
the developmental course of peer interaction.....................................................................................46
determinants of peer acceptance........................................................................................................ 47
peer status....................................................................................................................................... 47
consequences of low peer status..................................................................................................... 47
friendship............................................................................................................................................ 48
friendship formation......................................................................................................................... 48
conceptions of friendship................................................................................................................. 48
the maintenance of friendships........................................................................................................ 48
the functions of friendship................................................................................................................ 49
social cognitive development.............................................................................................................. 49
the chils’s theory of mind................................................................................................................. 49
why call it a theory of mind?............................................................................................................ 49
desires and beliefs........................................................................................................................... 49
understanding misrepresentation: the case of false beliefs.............................................................50
early social experience and the development of theory of mind......................................................50
theory of mind and later social development...................................................................................50
the development of self and the differentiation of self from others..................................................50
understanding others’ perspectives................................................................................................. 50
12 moral development....................................................................................................51
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 51
theories of moral development........................................................................................................... 51
learning theory and social learning theory.......................................................................................51
piaget’s theory of moral development.............................................................................................. 51
kohlberg’s theory of moral development.......................................................................................... 52
emotion and morality.......................................................................................................................... 52
guilt, shame and embarrasment...................................................................................................... 52
sympathy, empathy and moral behaviour........................................................................................52
moral reasoning and moral behaviour................................................................................................. 53
prosocial behaviour.......................................................................................................................... 53
self-control and delay of gratification............................................................................................... 53
distributive justice............................................................................................................................ 53
agression............................................................................................................................................. 54
agression across development......................................................................................................... 54
gender differences........................................................................................................................... 54
causes of aggresion.......................................................................................................................... 54
Testvragen..................................................................................................................... 56
Hoofdstuk 2......................................................................................................................................... 56
Hoofdstuk 3......................................................................................................................................... 57
Hoofdstuk 4......................................................................................................................................... 57
Hoofdstuk 5......................................................................................................................................... 58
Hoofdstuk 6......................................................................................................................................... 59
, Hoofdstuk 7......................................................................................................................................... 59
Hoofdstuk 8......................................................................................................................................... 60
Hoofdstuk 9......................................................................................................................................... 61
hoofdstuk 10....................................................................................................................................... 62
hoofdstuk 11....................................................................................................................................... 62
Hoofdstuk 12....................................................................................................................................... 63
figuren........................................................................................................................... 65
,2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS A THEORY?
Een theorie is een samenhangend, logisch systeem van concepten dat helpt om waarnemingen te
organiseren, begrijpen en voorspellen. Theorieën kunnen formeel of informeel zijn.
Formele theorieën bestaan uit expliciete hypothesen, definities, axioma’s en wetten, en
moeten logisch consistent, toetsbaar, eenvoudig en in overeenstemming met empirische
gegevens zijn.
Informele theorieën (ook wel impliciete theorieën zijn minder strikt en meer gebaseerd op
intuïties en verwachtingen.
Een goede theorie moet duidelijk maken:
Het toepassingsgebied; welke verschijnselen de theorie verklaart en welke niet.
De aannames; de onderliggende uitgangspunten waarop de theorie rust, die cultureel of
wetenschappelijk bepaald kunnen zijn.
Theorieën hebben twee hoofdfuncties:
Ze ordenen en interpreteren observaties, zodat centrale en perifere factoren onderscheiden
kunnen worden.
Ze sturen kennisverwerving, door voorspellingen te doen die getest kunnen worden en soms
bestaande kennis opnieuw te interpreteren.
Specifiek voor ontwikkelingspsychologie is dat theorieën altijd gericht zijn op verandering in de
tijd. Volgens Miller (1993) moet een ontwikkelingstheorie drie taken vervullen:
1. Veranderingen binnen een bepaald domein beschrijven (bijv. emotionele ontwikkeling)
2. Veranderingen in de relatie tussen domeinen beschrijven (bijv. cognitieve en sociale
ontwikkeling).
3. Verklaren hoe deze veranderingen plaatsvinden (door rijping, leren, of een combinatie).
THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
De psychodynamische theorieën komen van Sigmund Freud. Het belangrijkste idee is dat interne
krachten zoals onderbewuste verlangens en innerlijke conflicten ons gedrag sturen. Freud benadrukte
dat vroege ervaringen bepalend zijn voor de persoonlijkheid die we later ontwikkelen. Biologische
driften sturen het gedrag aan. Levensdrift (Eros), creatie en behouden van leven. Doodsdrift
(Thanatos).
Freud verdeelde de persoonlijkheid in drie onderdelen:
Id; staat voor aangeboren driften en verlangens en wil directe bevrediging (plezierprincipe).
(eigen wensen/ instinct)
Ego; ontstaat wanneer we leren dat we onze verlangens niet altijd meteen kunnen uiten, zoekt
realistische en sociaal aanvaardbare manieren om toch aan behoeften tegemoet te komen.
(eigen wensen op sociaal acceptabele manier)
Superego; ontwikkelt zich wanneer de normen en waarden van onze ouders en de
maatschappij internaliseren; dit is ons geweten. (internalisering culturele waarden; geweten en
ideale zelf)
Het ego bevindt zich steeds in een spanningsveld tussen de eisen van het id en de regels van het
superego, en dit vormt de kern van onze persoonlijkheidsontwikkeling.
, Freud zag ontwikkeling als een discontinu proces dat door 5 stadia verloopt, waarin steeds een ander
lichaamsgebied centraal staat. Hierbij zijn vroegkinderlijke ervaringen belangrijk. De fases zijn:
1. Orale fase (0-1,5 jaar) – mond zuigen, bijten, kauwen.
2. Anale fase (1,5 – 3 jaar) – zindelijkheid spanning tussen direct ontlasten en ouderlijke
regels.
3. Fallische fase (3-6 jaar) – genitaal gebied Oedipus-/ electracomplex; identificatie met
ouder van hetzelfde geslacht.
4. Latentieperiode (6-puberteit) – seksualiteit onderdrukt; focus op leren en sociale
vaardigheden.
5. Genitale fase (puberteit +) – seksuele verlangens opnieuw actief; gericht op
leeftijdsgenoten.
Kritiek op de theorie:
Sterke focus op mannen
Moeilijk wetenschappelijk toetsbaar
Belangrijke claims niet empirisch bevestigd (met wetenschappelijk onderzoek)
Moderne psychoanalyse:
Minder nadruk op seksualiteit/ agressie.
Meer aandacht voor
o Onbewuste processen
o Vroege relaties met ouders/ verzorgers
o Levensgeschiedenis en context
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
Erik Erikson ontwikkelde een theorie die in contrast staat met Freud: in plaats van seksuele en
agressieve driften te benadrukken, legt Erikson de nadruk op sociale en culturele factoren in de
ontwikkeling. Bovendien beschouwde hij ontwikkeling als een levenslang proces, dat doorgaat tot in
de ouderdom, in tegenstelling tot Freud, die ontwikkeling vooral tot adolescentie zag.
Erikson stelde dat ontwikkeling het beste begrepen kan worden als de interactie tussen drie systemen:
1. Somatisch/ lichamelijk systeem alle biologische processen die functioneren mogelijk
maken.
2. Ego-syteem centrale processen
van denken en redeneren.
3. Maatschappelijk systeem
processen waardoor een persoon
wordt geïntegreerd in de
samenleving.
Ontwikkeling verloopt in acht
opeenvolgende stadia, elk gekenmerkt
door een psychosociale crisis of taak.
Hoe goed iemand een crisis oplos,
beïnvloedt de verdere ontwikkeling: succes
leidt tot gezonde ontwikkeling, falen tot
minder optimale uitkomsten. Bovendien
bouwen de verworvenheden van eerdere
stadie voort op de huidige uitdagingen.
Sterktes:
+ testvragen!
,Inhoudsopgave
2 Theories of development................................................................................................ 1
Introduction: What is a theory?............................................................................................................. 1
theories of human development........................................................................................................... 1
Psychodynamic theory....................................................................................................................... 1
psychosocial theory............................................................................................................................ 2
Developmental task theory................................................................................................................ 3
Behaviourisme en sociaal leren.......................................................................................................... 3
the ethological perspective................................................................................................................ 4
evolutionary developmental theory (evo-devo psychologie)..............................................................5
bio-ecologisch model van ontwikkeling.............................................................................................. 5
life course theory/ levenslooptheorie................................................................................................. 6
dynamic systems theory.................................................................................................................... 7
cognitive developmental theories......................................................................................................... 7
Jean piaget’s theory of cognitive development..................................................................................7
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development................................................................................7
Information processing accounts of development..............................................................................8
Theories of human development........................................................................................................... 8
cognitive development theories............................................................................................................ 9
3 the biological foundations of Development I: Physical Growth, motor development and
genetics......................................................................................................................... 10
the course of physical growth............................................................................................................. 10
prenatal development...................................................................................................................... 10
fetal learning.................................................................................................................................... 11
birth................................................................................................................................................. 11
prematurity...................................................................................................................................... 11
patterns of growth............................................................................................................................ 11
environmental factors in physical growth: nutrition.........................................................................11
motor development............................................................................................................................. 12
maturation vs. experience................................................................................................................ 12
gross and fine motor development................................................................................................... 13
motor development as a dynamic system........................................................................................ 13
the development of motor skills beyond infancy..............................................................................13
genetics.............................................................................................................................................. 13
genes and environments.................................................................................................................. 14
behaviour genetics........................................................................................................................... 14
heritability........................................................................................................................................ 14
epigenetics.......................................................................................................................................... 15
research designs in behaviour genetics........................................................................................... 15
5 the biological foundations of development II: the developing braing..............................16
micro-level structures of the brain...................................................................................................... 16
developmental neuroscience.............................................................................................................. 16
research example 5.2....................................................................................................................... 16
synaptic proliferation and pruning.................................................................................................... 17
myelination...................................................................................................................................... 17
neuroplasticity.................................................................................................................................. 17
sensitive periods.............................................................................................................................. 18
growth spurts................................................................................................................................... 18
, brain stimulation.............................................................................................................................. 19
6 perception................................................................................................................... 20
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 20
why study perception.......................................................................................................................... 20
theories of perceptual development................................................................................................... 20
piaget’s theory of perceptual development......................................................................................21
gibson’s theory of perceptual development.....................................................................................21
ways of studying perceptual development in infants..........................................................................21
the development of the sense............................................................................................................. 21
touch................................................................................................................................................ 21
taste................................................................................................................................................. 21
smell................................................................................................................................................ 22
hearing............................................................................................................................................. 22
the development of vision................................................................................................................... 23
visual acuity..................................................................................................................................... 23
color vision....................................................................................................................................... 23
pattern perception........................................................................................................................... 23
object perception............................................................................................................................. 24
face perception................................................................................................................................ 24
depth perception.............................................................................................................................. 24
intermodal perception...................................................................................................................... 24
perceptual development across the life span......................................................................................25
7 theories of cognitive development................................................................................26
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 26
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development........................................................................................... 26
an overview of piagetian theory: key concepts................................................................................26
the sensorimotor stage.................................................................................................................... 26
early understanding of object permanence......................................................................................26
the preoperational stage.................................................................................................................. 27
the concrete operational stage......................................................................................................... 27
the formal operational stage............................................................................................................ 28
criticisms of piagetian theory........................................................................................................... 28
educational applications of piaget’s theory......................................................................................28
vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development..................................................................29
the zone of proximal development................................................................................................... 29
language and play............................................................................................................................ 29
the implications of vygotsky’s theory for education.........................................................................29
criticisms of vygotsky’s theory......................................................................................................... 30
information processing theories.......................................................................................................... 30
the information processing system.................................................................................................. 30
a neo-piagetian theory of cognitive development............................................................................30
connectionism.................................................................................................................................. 31
8 cognitive processes..................................................................................................... 32
attention............................................................................................................................................. 32
aspects of attention.......................................................................................................................... 32
attention strategies.......................................................................................................................... 32
attention as a cognitive resource..................................................................................................... 32
memory............................................................................................................................................... 32
, retrieving memory............................................................................................................................ 33
memory strategies........................................................................................................................... 33
metacognition..................................................................................................................................... 33
problem solving................................................................................................................................... 34
9 development of language and communication...............................................................35
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 35
theories of language development...................................................................................................... 35
learning theory................................................................................................................................. 35
nativist theory.................................................................................................................................. 35
interactionist views.......................................................................................................................... 35
preverbal communication................................................................................................................... 36
phonological development.................................................................................................................. 36
semantic development........................................................................................................................ 36
first words........................................................................................................................................ 37
theories of smantic development..................................................................................................... 37
errors in early semantic development..............................................................................................37
semantic development beyond the preschool years........................................................................37
the development of syntax/ grammar................................................................................................. 37
first sentences.................................................................................................................................. 38
the development of pragmatics.......................................................................................................... 38
becoming an effective communicator.............................................................................................. 38
Nonliteral language.......................................................................................................................... 39
metalinguistic ability........................................................................................................................ 39
10 emotional development.............................................................................................. 40
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 40
the development of emotional expressions......................................................................................... 40
early emotions................................................................................................................................. 40
emotionale development beyond infancy.........................................................................................40
the development of emotional understanding.....................................................................................40
using emotional information: social referencing...............................................................................40
the development of complex emotions............................................................................................41
understanding multiple emotions..................................................................................................... 41
emotion scripts................................................................................................................................. 41
emotion regulation.............................................................................................................................. 41
emotional intelligence...................................................................................................................... 41
culture and emotion......................................................................................................................... 42
the development of attachment.......................................................................................................... 42
bowbly’s theory of attachment......................................................................................................... 42
the development of the attachment relationship.............................................................................42
quality of attachment and the strange situation..............................................................................42
stability of attachment..................................................................................................................... 43
the consequences of attachment relationships................................................................................43
attachment and culture.................................................................................................................... 43
temperament...................................................................................................................................... 43
defining temperament...................................................................................................................... 43
the measurement of temperament.................................................................................................. 44
the continuity of temperament......................................................................................................... 44
googness of fit.................................................................................................................................. 44
, temperament and adjustment.......................................................................................................... 44
11 social development.................................................................................................... 45
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 45
theories of social development........................................................................................................... 45
types of play and their functions......................................................................................................... 45
the developmental course of peer interaction.....................................................................................46
determinants of peer acceptance........................................................................................................ 47
peer status....................................................................................................................................... 47
consequences of low peer status..................................................................................................... 47
friendship............................................................................................................................................ 48
friendship formation......................................................................................................................... 48
conceptions of friendship................................................................................................................. 48
the maintenance of friendships........................................................................................................ 48
the functions of friendship................................................................................................................ 49
social cognitive development.............................................................................................................. 49
the chils’s theory of mind................................................................................................................. 49
why call it a theory of mind?............................................................................................................ 49
desires and beliefs........................................................................................................................... 49
understanding misrepresentation: the case of false beliefs.............................................................50
early social experience and the development of theory of mind......................................................50
theory of mind and later social development...................................................................................50
the development of self and the differentiation of self from others..................................................50
understanding others’ perspectives................................................................................................. 50
12 moral development....................................................................................................51
introduction......................................................................................................................................... 51
theories of moral development........................................................................................................... 51
learning theory and social learning theory.......................................................................................51
piaget’s theory of moral development.............................................................................................. 51
kohlberg’s theory of moral development.......................................................................................... 52
emotion and morality.......................................................................................................................... 52
guilt, shame and embarrasment...................................................................................................... 52
sympathy, empathy and moral behaviour........................................................................................52
moral reasoning and moral behaviour................................................................................................. 53
prosocial behaviour.......................................................................................................................... 53
self-control and delay of gratification............................................................................................... 53
distributive justice............................................................................................................................ 53
agression............................................................................................................................................. 54
agression across development......................................................................................................... 54
gender differences........................................................................................................................... 54
causes of aggresion.......................................................................................................................... 54
Testvragen..................................................................................................................... 56
Hoofdstuk 2......................................................................................................................................... 56
Hoofdstuk 3......................................................................................................................................... 57
Hoofdstuk 4......................................................................................................................................... 57
Hoofdstuk 5......................................................................................................................................... 58
Hoofdstuk 6......................................................................................................................................... 59
, Hoofdstuk 7......................................................................................................................................... 59
Hoofdstuk 8......................................................................................................................................... 60
Hoofdstuk 9......................................................................................................................................... 61
hoofdstuk 10....................................................................................................................................... 62
hoofdstuk 11....................................................................................................................................... 62
Hoofdstuk 12....................................................................................................................................... 63
figuren........................................................................................................................... 65
,2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS A THEORY?
Een theorie is een samenhangend, logisch systeem van concepten dat helpt om waarnemingen te
organiseren, begrijpen en voorspellen. Theorieën kunnen formeel of informeel zijn.
Formele theorieën bestaan uit expliciete hypothesen, definities, axioma’s en wetten, en
moeten logisch consistent, toetsbaar, eenvoudig en in overeenstemming met empirische
gegevens zijn.
Informele theorieën (ook wel impliciete theorieën zijn minder strikt en meer gebaseerd op
intuïties en verwachtingen.
Een goede theorie moet duidelijk maken:
Het toepassingsgebied; welke verschijnselen de theorie verklaart en welke niet.
De aannames; de onderliggende uitgangspunten waarop de theorie rust, die cultureel of
wetenschappelijk bepaald kunnen zijn.
Theorieën hebben twee hoofdfuncties:
Ze ordenen en interpreteren observaties, zodat centrale en perifere factoren onderscheiden
kunnen worden.
Ze sturen kennisverwerving, door voorspellingen te doen die getest kunnen worden en soms
bestaande kennis opnieuw te interpreteren.
Specifiek voor ontwikkelingspsychologie is dat theorieën altijd gericht zijn op verandering in de
tijd. Volgens Miller (1993) moet een ontwikkelingstheorie drie taken vervullen:
1. Veranderingen binnen een bepaald domein beschrijven (bijv. emotionele ontwikkeling)
2. Veranderingen in de relatie tussen domeinen beschrijven (bijv. cognitieve en sociale
ontwikkeling).
3. Verklaren hoe deze veranderingen plaatsvinden (door rijping, leren, of een combinatie).
THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
De psychodynamische theorieën komen van Sigmund Freud. Het belangrijkste idee is dat interne
krachten zoals onderbewuste verlangens en innerlijke conflicten ons gedrag sturen. Freud benadrukte
dat vroege ervaringen bepalend zijn voor de persoonlijkheid die we later ontwikkelen. Biologische
driften sturen het gedrag aan. Levensdrift (Eros), creatie en behouden van leven. Doodsdrift
(Thanatos).
Freud verdeelde de persoonlijkheid in drie onderdelen:
Id; staat voor aangeboren driften en verlangens en wil directe bevrediging (plezierprincipe).
(eigen wensen/ instinct)
Ego; ontstaat wanneer we leren dat we onze verlangens niet altijd meteen kunnen uiten, zoekt
realistische en sociaal aanvaardbare manieren om toch aan behoeften tegemoet te komen.
(eigen wensen op sociaal acceptabele manier)
Superego; ontwikkelt zich wanneer de normen en waarden van onze ouders en de
maatschappij internaliseren; dit is ons geweten. (internalisering culturele waarden; geweten en
ideale zelf)
Het ego bevindt zich steeds in een spanningsveld tussen de eisen van het id en de regels van het
superego, en dit vormt de kern van onze persoonlijkheidsontwikkeling.
, Freud zag ontwikkeling als een discontinu proces dat door 5 stadia verloopt, waarin steeds een ander
lichaamsgebied centraal staat. Hierbij zijn vroegkinderlijke ervaringen belangrijk. De fases zijn:
1. Orale fase (0-1,5 jaar) – mond zuigen, bijten, kauwen.
2. Anale fase (1,5 – 3 jaar) – zindelijkheid spanning tussen direct ontlasten en ouderlijke
regels.
3. Fallische fase (3-6 jaar) – genitaal gebied Oedipus-/ electracomplex; identificatie met
ouder van hetzelfde geslacht.
4. Latentieperiode (6-puberteit) – seksualiteit onderdrukt; focus op leren en sociale
vaardigheden.
5. Genitale fase (puberteit +) – seksuele verlangens opnieuw actief; gericht op
leeftijdsgenoten.
Kritiek op de theorie:
Sterke focus op mannen
Moeilijk wetenschappelijk toetsbaar
Belangrijke claims niet empirisch bevestigd (met wetenschappelijk onderzoek)
Moderne psychoanalyse:
Minder nadruk op seksualiteit/ agressie.
Meer aandacht voor
o Onbewuste processen
o Vroege relaties met ouders/ verzorgers
o Levensgeschiedenis en context
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
Erik Erikson ontwikkelde een theorie die in contrast staat met Freud: in plaats van seksuele en
agressieve driften te benadrukken, legt Erikson de nadruk op sociale en culturele factoren in de
ontwikkeling. Bovendien beschouwde hij ontwikkeling als een levenslang proces, dat doorgaat tot in
de ouderdom, in tegenstelling tot Freud, die ontwikkeling vooral tot adolescentie zag.
Erikson stelde dat ontwikkeling het beste begrepen kan worden als de interactie tussen drie systemen:
1. Somatisch/ lichamelijk systeem alle biologische processen die functioneren mogelijk
maken.
2. Ego-syteem centrale processen
van denken en redeneren.
3. Maatschappelijk systeem
processen waardoor een persoon
wordt geïntegreerd in de
samenleving.
Ontwikkeling verloopt in acht
opeenvolgende stadia, elk gekenmerkt
door een psychosociale crisis of taak.
Hoe goed iemand een crisis oplos,
beïnvloedt de verdere ontwikkeling: succes
leidt tot gezonde ontwikkeling, falen tot
minder optimale uitkomsten. Bovendien
bouwen de verworvenheden van eerdere
stadie voort op de huidige uitdagingen.
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