AQA

While often grouped under the single label of "Common Assault," Assault and Battery are distinct legal concepts distinguished by the presence or absence of physical contact. Assault is a non-physical offence where the defendant's actions or words cause the victim to fear the imminent application of unlawful force; the harm is purely psychological, rooted in the victim’s apprehension of an attack. In contrast, Battery is defined by the actual application of unlawful physical force, whi...

In criminal law, breaking the chain of causation (also known as novus actus interveniens) refers to an intervening event that is so significant it relieves the defendant of legal responsibility for the ultimate consequence. While the defendant may satisfy factual causation—the "but for" test—the chain of legal causation must remain unbroken from the initial act to the final prohibited result. For an event to break the chain, it must be "free, deliberate, and informed" (R v Pagett...

The defendant must prove that this defect caused them to either not know the nature and quality of their act (they didn't understand what they were physically doing) or, if they did know, that they did not know what they were doing was wrong in the legal sense (R v Windle). Unlike most criminal defences where the prosecution must disprove it, the burden of proof for insanity rests on the defence on the balance of probabilities. If successful, the verdict is "Not Guilty by Reason of Insanit...

In English law, Attempted Offences are governed by Section 1(1) of the Criminal Attempts Act 1981, which defines an attempt as an act that is "more than merely preparatory" to the commission of a full offence. This legal framework allows the justice system to intervene before a crime is completed, provided the defendant has moved beyond the planning stage and into the execution phase. The actus reus requires a significant step toward the crime—such as standing outside a door with a lo...

This summary defines Assault and Battery as the two least serious non-fatal offences against the person, collectively categorized as "Common Assault" under Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988. Assault is a summary offence committed when a defendant intentionally or recklessly causes a victim to apprehend immediate, unlawful personal violence; notably, no physical contact is required, as the harm lies in the psychological fear of imminent force. In contrast, Battery involves the ...

ULTIMATE A* ALEVEL NOTES. This in-depth summary of MBIT from the AQA philosophy A-level syllabus follows the specification. The summary provides general tips and how to structure and include these details in an essay. Summary also includes some other philosophers off the spec but included in textbooks. (for higher marks)

ULTIMATE A* ALEVEL NOTES. This in-depth summary of EM from the AQA philosophy A-level syllabus follows the specification. The summary provides general tips and how to structure and include these details in an essay. Summary also includes some other philosophers off the spec but included in textbooks. (for higher marks)

ULTIMATE A* ALEVEL NOTES. This in-depth summary of MBIT from the AQA philosophy A-level syllabus follows the specification. The summary provides general tips and how to structure and include these details in an essay. Summary also includes some other philosophers off the spec but included in textbooks. (for higher marks)

ULTIMATE A* ALEVEL NOTES. This in-depth summary of behaviourism from the AQA philosophy A-level syllabus follows the specification. The summary provides general tips and how to structure and include these details in an essay. Summary also includes some other philosophers off the spec but included in textbooks. (for higher marks)

ULTIMATE A* ALEVEL NOTES. This in-depth summary of property dualism from the AQA philosophy A-level syllabus follows the specification. The summary provides general tips and how to structure and include these details in an essay. Summary also includes some other philosophers off the spec but included in textbooks. (for higher marks)