University Of North Carolina - Chapel Hill

This comprehensive set of notes covers core biological principles across systems. It explains homeostasis maintained by negative feedback (e.g., thermoregulation by the hypothalamus). The immune system is detailed, including innate immunity (barriers, phagocytes, inflammation) and adaptive immunity (lymphocytes, B cells/T cells, humoral/cell-mediated responses, clonal selection, memory cells, vaccination, and herd immunity). Human reproduction is covered, detailing meiosis (spermatogenesis/oogen...

These notes cover the principles of energy transformation in cells. Cells perform cellular work (chemical, transport, mechanical) powered by ATP. The laws of thermodynamics state energy cannot be created/destroyed (First Law) and that energy conversions increase entropy (Second Law). Exergonic reactions release energy (e.g., cellular respiration), while endergonic reactions require energy input (e.g., photosynthesis). Cells use energy coupling, linking exergonic processes to endergonic ones via ...

These notes cover the body's two major communication systems. The endocrine system uses hormones (chemical signals) for slow, long-term regulation (e.g., growth, stress). The nervous system uses fast electrical signals for immediate responses (e.g., reflexes). Hormones act on target cells via specific receptors: water-soluble hormones (like insulin) bind to membrane receptors and trigger signal transduction pathways, while lipid-soluble hormones (like steroids) enter the cell and directly reg...

These notes describe the structure and function of the plasma membrane, explained by the fluid mosaic model: a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. The membrane exhibits selective permeability, controlling what enters and exits the cell. Membrane proteins perform vital functions: transport, enzymatic activity, signal reception, cell-cell recognition, and attachment. Passive transport (diffusion and facilitated diffusion) moves substances down their concentration gradient without cellular...

These notes detail the two-stage process of photosynthesis: the light reactions in the thylakoid membranes and the Calvin cycle in the stroma. The light reactions capture solar energy using chlorophyll in Photosystems II and I, split water to release O₂, and produce ATP (via photophosphorylation and chemiosmosis) and NADPH. These energy carriers power the Calvin cycle, where CO₂ is fixed by the enzyme rubisco into RuBP and reduced to form G3P and eventually sugars like glucose. The process i...

These notes cover the essential processes of cell division for reproduction, growth, and repair. Asexual reproduction, such as binary fission in prokaryotes or mitosis in eukaryotes, produces genetically identical offspring. Sexual reproduction involves meiosis to produce gametes, resulting in genetic variation. The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of long Interphase (G1, S, G2) for growth and DNA replication, followed by the Mitotic (M) Phase, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. Cell division...

This set of notes details the three main stages of cellular respiration, the process cells use to convert glucose into ATP. Stage 1: Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, splitting glucose into pyruvate while producing a small net gain of ATP and NADH. Stage 2: Pyruvate Oxidation and the Citric Acid Cycle occur in the mitochondrial matrix, fully oxidizing pyruvate to CO2 and generating more NADH, FADH2, and a small amount of ATP. Stage 3: Oxidative Phosphorylation occurs at the inner mitochondrial m...

This comprehensive set of notes details the structure and function of DNA and RNA as nucleic acid polymers, built from nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base. It explains the historic discovery of DNA's double helix structure by Watson, Crick, and Franklin, held together by specific complementary base pairing (A-T, G-C). This structure enables its key function: accurate replication via a semiconservative mechanism to preserve genetic information. The notes then cover ...

This summary covers the central dogma of molecular biology—the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein via transcription and translation—and explains how genes determine an organism’s traits through protein synthesis. It also details types of genetic mutations, including substitutions (silent, missense, nonsense) and frameshift mutations, using sickle-cell disease as a key example. The notes explore causes of mutations, such as replication errors and mutagens, and their impa...

Review of basic inference; two-sample comparisons; correlation; introduction to matrices; simple and multiple regression (including significance tests, diagnostics, variable selection); analysis of variance; use of statistical software.