BIRMINGHAM UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e-LEARNING
AGE 402: SURVEYING
GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPICS PAGE
A. PART ONE 1
1. Lesson One: Introduction 2
2. Lesson Two: Types of Surveys 9
3. Lesson Three: Map Projections 19
4. Lesson Four: Surveying Measurements and Instrumentation 25
5. Lesson Five: Instruments and Methods of Distance Measurements 32
6. Lesson Six: Measurements of Angles and Directions 44
7. Lesson Seven: Levelling 60
B. PART TWO 85
8. Lesson Eight: Practical Surveying 86
9. Lesson Nine: Traversing 90
10. Lesson Ten: Triangulation 109
11. Lesson Eleven: Plane-Table 122
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LESSON ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
Surveying is the art and science of determining relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the
surface of the earth, or establishing such points. It involves measuring distances, angles and
positions of the points. These points are usually, but not exclusively, associated with positions
on the surface of the Earth, and are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership
or governmental purposes. In order to accomplish their objective, surveyors use elements of
geometry (Greek: measuring the Earth), engineering, mathematics, physics, and law. Surveyors
must also have thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, and trigonometry. They must
know the laws that deal with surveys, property, and contracts. In addition, they must be able to use
delicate instruments with accuracy and precision. Mathematical calculations are used in
conjunction with actual measurements in the field. From this, distances, directions, locations, area,
elevations (heights) and volumes are determined from data obtained from survey. From such
information, maps, profiles, cross sections and diagrams are constructed.Surveying is an art in
that only a surveyor who possesses a thorough understanding of surveying techniques will be able
to determine the most efficient methods required to obtain optimal results over a wide variety of
surveying problems. Surveying is scientific to the degree that rigorous mathematical techniques are
used to analyze and adjust the field survey data. The accuracy and thus reliability of the survey
depend not only on the field expertise of the surveyor, but also on the survey measurements.
3
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1.1 Objectives
By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to:-
1. Define surveying as an art and science of determining relative positions of points.
2. Describe the various classes of surveys
3. Distinguish between field work and office work in surveying
1.2 Historical background of surveying
Surveying is a profession with a very long history. In fact, surveying techniques have existed
throughout much of recorded history. Since people first owned property, boundaries markers have
been required to distinguish one property from another. Historical records dating back almost
five thousand years show evidence of surveyors in China, India, Babylon, and Egypt. In Ancient
Egypt, when the Nile River overflowed its banks and washed out farm boundaries, boundaries were
re-established through the application of simple geometry. The Egyptian surveyor called
Harpedonapata (rope- stretcher), was in constant demand when the Nile river flooded. The
surveyor used ropes with knots tied at set graduations to measure distances. Ropes also were used
to lay out right angles. The nearly perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great
Pyramid of Giza, built c.2700 BC, affirm the ancient Egyptians‘ command of surveying.
Historically, angles and distances were measured using a variety of means, such as chains with links
of a known length. In order to measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes would be pulled
taut, to reduce sagging and slack. Additionally, attempts to hold the measuring instrument level
would be made. In instances of measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to
―break‖ the measurement, that is, raise the rear part of the tape upward, plumb from where the last
measurement ended.
4
INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e-LEARNING
AGE 402: SURVEYING
GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
1|Pag e
, Click Here & Upgrade
Expanded Features
PDF Unlimited Pages
Documents
Complete
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPICS PAGE
A. PART ONE 1
1. Lesson One: Introduction 2
2. Lesson Two: Types of Surveys 9
3. Lesson Three: Map Projections 19
4. Lesson Four: Surveying Measurements and Instrumentation 25
5. Lesson Five: Instruments and Methods of Distance Measurements 32
6. Lesson Six: Measurements of Angles and Directions 44
7. Lesson Seven: Levelling 60
B. PART TWO 85
8. Lesson Eight: Practical Surveying 86
9. Lesson Nine: Traversing 90
10. Lesson Ten: Triangulation 109
11. Lesson Eleven: Plane-Table 122
2
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LESSON ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
Surveying is the art and science of determining relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the
surface of the earth, or establishing such points. It involves measuring distances, angles and
positions of the points. These points are usually, but not exclusively, associated with positions
on the surface of the Earth, and are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership
or governmental purposes. In order to accomplish their objective, surveyors use elements of
geometry (Greek: measuring the Earth), engineering, mathematics, physics, and law. Surveyors
must also have thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, and trigonometry. They must
know the laws that deal with surveys, property, and contracts. In addition, they must be able to use
delicate instruments with accuracy and precision. Mathematical calculations are used in
conjunction with actual measurements in the field. From this, distances, directions, locations, area,
elevations (heights) and volumes are determined from data obtained from survey. From such
information, maps, profiles, cross sections and diagrams are constructed.Surveying is an art in
that only a surveyor who possesses a thorough understanding of surveying techniques will be able
to determine the most efficient methods required to obtain optimal results over a wide variety of
surveying problems. Surveying is scientific to the degree that rigorous mathematical techniques are
used to analyze and adjust the field survey data. The accuracy and thus reliability of the survey
depend not only on the field expertise of the surveyor, but also on the survey measurements.
3
, Click Here & Upgrade
Expanded Features
PDF Unlimited Pages
Documents
Complete
1.1 Objectives
By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to:-
1. Define surveying as an art and science of determining relative positions of points.
2. Describe the various classes of surveys
3. Distinguish between field work and office work in surveying
1.2 Historical background of surveying
Surveying is a profession with a very long history. In fact, surveying techniques have existed
throughout much of recorded history. Since people first owned property, boundaries markers have
been required to distinguish one property from another. Historical records dating back almost
five thousand years show evidence of surveyors in China, India, Babylon, and Egypt. In Ancient
Egypt, when the Nile River overflowed its banks and washed out farm boundaries, boundaries were
re-established through the application of simple geometry. The Egyptian surveyor called
Harpedonapata (rope- stretcher), was in constant demand when the Nile river flooded. The
surveyor used ropes with knots tied at set graduations to measure distances. Ropes also were used
to lay out right angles. The nearly perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great
Pyramid of Giza, built c.2700 BC, affirm the ancient Egyptians‘ command of surveying.
Historically, angles and distances were measured using a variety of means, such as chains with links
of a known length. In order to measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes would be pulled
taut, to reduce sagging and slack. Additionally, attempts to hold the measuring instrument level
would be made. In instances of measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to
―break‖ the measurement, that is, raise the rear part of the tape upward, plumb from where the last
measurement ended.
4
