Ward Chapter 1 Introducing Cognitive Neuroscience
Cognition: a variety of higher mental processes such as thinking, perceiving,
imagining, speaking, acting and planning.
Cognitive neuroscience: bridging discipline between cognitive science and
cognitive psychology and biology and neuroscience. It aims to explain cognitive
processes in terms of brain-based mechanisms.
Philosophical approaches to mind and brain:
- Mind-body problem: the problem of how a physical substance (the brain)
can give rise to our sensations, thoughts and emotions (our mind). It
should more properly be called the mind-brain problem, because it is now
agreed that the brain is the key part of the body for cognition.
- Dualism: the belief that mind and brain are made up of different kinds of
substance. One of its proponents was René Descartes. He believed that the
mind was nonphysical and immortal, whereas the body was physical and
mortal. He suggested that they interact in the pineal gland (center of the
brain). There is little hope for cognitive neuroscience if dualism is true
because the methods of physical and biological sciences cannot tap into
the nonphysical domain.
- Dual-aspect theory: the belief that mind and brain are two levels of
description of the same thing. (Spinoza). Het zijn dus niet twee losse
substanties, zoals Descartes denkt, maar twee manieren om één ding te
begrijpen.
- Reductionism: the belief that mind-based concepts will eventually be
replaced by neuroscientific concepts. Dus alle concepten die we nu
gebruiken om de geest, gedachten, gevoelens of bewustzijn te beschrijven
(mind-based concepts) zullen uiteindelijk worden herleid tot, of vervangen
door, neurowetenschappelijke concepten.
Met andere woorden: termen zoals “liefde”, “angst”, “intentie” zullen uiteindelijk
vertaald worden naar beschrijvingen in termen van neuronale processen,
synapsen en hersenchemie.
Scientific approaches to mind and brain:
- Phrenology: (1) different regions of the brain perform different functions
and are assiociated with different behaviors, (2) the size of these regions
produces distortions of the skull and correlates with individual differences
in cognition and personality. So, phrenology is the failed idea that
individual differences in cognition can be mapped onto differences in skull
shape. (Gall and Spurzheim, 19e eeuw) Het idee dat functies gelokaliseerd
kunnen zijn was wél een belangrijke stap
- Functional specialization: different regions of the brain are specialized for
different functions.
- Broca concludeerde, na het onderzoeken van twee mensen met
hersenbeschadiging, dat spraakproductie niet verspreid is over het hele
, brein, maar gelokaliseerd is. Dit ondersteunt dus het idee van functional
specialization.
- Cognitive neuropsychology: the study of brain-damaged patients to inform
theories of normal cognition.
- Information-processing: an approach in which behavior is described in
terms of a sequence of cognitive stages.
- Interactivity: the fact that later stages of processing can begin before
earlier stages are complete.
- Top-down processing: the influence of later stages on the processing of
earlier ones (bijv. Memory influences perception, je ziet een foto van een
wazig gezicht, je herkent degene sneller omdat je al weet wie het is.
- Bottom-up processing: the passage of information from simpler (e.g.
edges) to more complex (e.g. objects). (bijv. Je ziet een paar lijnen, je brein
maakt dat tot een figuur en vervolgens herkent die het als object)
- Parallel processing: the fact that lots of different information can be
processed at the same time.
- Modularity: the notion that certain cognitive processes (or regions of the
brain) are restricted in the type of information they process. First, Fodor
makes a distinction between two different classes of cognitive processes:
central systems and modules. Modules are held to demonstrate domain
specificity in that they process only one particular type of information
(color, shape, words, faces), whereas central systems are held to be
domain independent in that the type of information processed is
nonspecific (candidates would be memory, attention, executive functions).
According to Fodor, by processing only a limited type of information, they
can operate rapidly and efficiently. An additional claim is that modules may
be innately specified in the genetic code (van nature aangeboren).
- Domain specificity: the idea that a cognitive process (or brain region) is
dedicated solely to one particular type of information.
Computational and connectionist models of cognition:
- Neural network models: computational models in which information
processing occurs using many interconnected nodes. In plaats van een
centrale processor, werken veel kleine eenheden (nodes) samen om
patronen te herkennen of beslissingen te nemen.
- Nodes: the basic units of neural network modesl that are activated in
response to activity in other parts of the network. (De basisbouwstenen
van een neural network.
Elke node ontvangt input van andere nodes. Als de input sterk genoeg is, wordt
de node geactiveerd. Geactiveerde nodes sturen signalen door naar andere
nodes.)
- Deep neural networks: a neural network model containing multiple layers,
typically producing a simple-to-complex hierarchy of information
processing.
,The birth of cognitive neuroscience:
- The distinction between recording methods and stimulation methods is
crucial in cognitive neuroscience.
- The temporal resolution refers to the accuracy with which one can
measure when an event is occurring.
- The spatial resolution refers to the accuracy with which one can measure
where an event is occurring.
- The invasiveness of a method refers to whether the equipment is located
internally or externally.
- Hemodynamisch: veranderingen in de bloedstroom of zuurstof in het
bloed.
Method Method type Invasiveness Brain property
used
EEG/ERP Recording Noninvasive Electrical
Single-cell (and Recording Invasive Electrical
multi-unit)
recordings
TMS Stimulation Noninvasive Electromagnetic
tES Stimulation Noninvasive Electrical
MEG Recording Noninvasive Magnetic
PET Recording Invasive Hemodynamic
fMRI Recording Noninvasive Hemodynamic
fNIRS Recording Noninvasive Hemodynamic
Does cognitive psychology need the brain?
- Cognitive psychology developed substantially from the 1950s, using
information-processing models that do not make direct reference to the
brain. The claim is not that cognitive neuroscience is replacing cognitive
psychology, but merely that cognitive psychological theories can inform
theories and experiments in the neurosciences and vice versa. However
others have argued that this is impossible since information-processing
models do not make claims about the brain.
- Another distinction that has been used to contrast cognitive psychology
and cognitive neuroscience is that between software and hardware,
respectively. This derives from the familiar computer analogy in which one
can, supposedly, learn about information processing (software) without
knowing about the brain (hardware). This is to some extent true. The
computer analogy is a little misleading, since computer software is written
by people and information processing in the brain is not. Dus vergelijking
met computers:
, Cognitieve psychologie = software → beschrijft de structuur van
informatieverwerking, onafhankelijk van de fysieke implementatie.
Cognitieve neurowetenschap = hardware → onderzoekt hoe het brein deze
verwerking mogelijk maakt.
- Thus, cognitive psychology may be sufficient to tell us the structure of
information processing, but it may not answer deeper questions about why
information processing should be configured in that particular way. The
biological constraints imposed by the brain shape the nature and
limitations of cognition. Dus: sommige vragen kunnen alleen worden
beantwoord door het brein in beschouwing te nemen, niet alleen door
abstracte informatieverwerkingsmodellen.
Does neuroscience need cognitive psychology?
- One reason why phrenology failed is because the method had no real
scientific grounding, the same cannot be said of functional imaging.
Another reason why phrenology failed was that the psychological concepts
used were naïve. It is for this reason that functional imaging and other
advances in neuroscience do require the insights from cognitive
psychology to frame appropriate research questions and avoid becoming a
new phrenology.
The future of cognitive neuroscience
- In terms of a theoretical shift, there is a greater focus on understanding the
mind and brain as a network. On a practical level there is a shift towards
big data and more synthesizing approaches (such as meta-analyses) that
are motivated by a desire to protect future cognitive neuroscience
research from the so-called replication crisis,
- Replication crisis: systemic difficulties in being able to independently
reproduce published results that have been documented in many scientific
fields. Met andere woorden: een studie wordt gepubliceerd, maar wanneer
anderen hetzelfde experiment proberen, krijgen ze vaak andere resultaten.
From modules to networks:
- Network: a dynamically changing pattern of activity over several brain
regions. A brain might be a multitude of networks. Thus, not only do brain
regions have a degree of functional specialization, but entire networks may
also have some specializations.
- Connectome: a comprehensive map of neural connections in the brain that
may be thought of as its “wiring diagram.” Dus een connectome is een
kaart van het brein, die laat zien hoe neuronen en hersengebieden met
elkaar verbonden zijn en samenwerken om cognitieve functies mogelijk te
maken.
- The network architecture that supports cognition is derived from
biologically based observations of the structural and functional
connectome. This is supported by advanced mathematical tools such as
graph theory.
Cognition: a variety of higher mental processes such as thinking, perceiving,
imagining, speaking, acting and planning.
Cognitive neuroscience: bridging discipline between cognitive science and
cognitive psychology and biology and neuroscience. It aims to explain cognitive
processes in terms of brain-based mechanisms.
Philosophical approaches to mind and brain:
- Mind-body problem: the problem of how a physical substance (the brain)
can give rise to our sensations, thoughts and emotions (our mind). It
should more properly be called the mind-brain problem, because it is now
agreed that the brain is the key part of the body for cognition.
- Dualism: the belief that mind and brain are made up of different kinds of
substance. One of its proponents was René Descartes. He believed that the
mind was nonphysical and immortal, whereas the body was physical and
mortal. He suggested that they interact in the pineal gland (center of the
brain). There is little hope for cognitive neuroscience if dualism is true
because the methods of physical and biological sciences cannot tap into
the nonphysical domain.
- Dual-aspect theory: the belief that mind and brain are two levels of
description of the same thing. (Spinoza). Het zijn dus niet twee losse
substanties, zoals Descartes denkt, maar twee manieren om één ding te
begrijpen.
- Reductionism: the belief that mind-based concepts will eventually be
replaced by neuroscientific concepts. Dus alle concepten die we nu
gebruiken om de geest, gedachten, gevoelens of bewustzijn te beschrijven
(mind-based concepts) zullen uiteindelijk worden herleid tot, of vervangen
door, neurowetenschappelijke concepten.
Met andere woorden: termen zoals “liefde”, “angst”, “intentie” zullen uiteindelijk
vertaald worden naar beschrijvingen in termen van neuronale processen,
synapsen en hersenchemie.
Scientific approaches to mind and brain:
- Phrenology: (1) different regions of the brain perform different functions
and are assiociated with different behaviors, (2) the size of these regions
produces distortions of the skull and correlates with individual differences
in cognition and personality. So, phrenology is the failed idea that
individual differences in cognition can be mapped onto differences in skull
shape. (Gall and Spurzheim, 19e eeuw) Het idee dat functies gelokaliseerd
kunnen zijn was wél een belangrijke stap
- Functional specialization: different regions of the brain are specialized for
different functions.
- Broca concludeerde, na het onderzoeken van twee mensen met
hersenbeschadiging, dat spraakproductie niet verspreid is over het hele
, brein, maar gelokaliseerd is. Dit ondersteunt dus het idee van functional
specialization.
- Cognitive neuropsychology: the study of brain-damaged patients to inform
theories of normal cognition.
- Information-processing: an approach in which behavior is described in
terms of a sequence of cognitive stages.
- Interactivity: the fact that later stages of processing can begin before
earlier stages are complete.
- Top-down processing: the influence of later stages on the processing of
earlier ones (bijv. Memory influences perception, je ziet een foto van een
wazig gezicht, je herkent degene sneller omdat je al weet wie het is.
- Bottom-up processing: the passage of information from simpler (e.g.
edges) to more complex (e.g. objects). (bijv. Je ziet een paar lijnen, je brein
maakt dat tot een figuur en vervolgens herkent die het als object)
- Parallel processing: the fact that lots of different information can be
processed at the same time.
- Modularity: the notion that certain cognitive processes (or regions of the
brain) are restricted in the type of information they process. First, Fodor
makes a distinction between two different classes of cognitive processes:
central systems and modules. Modules are held to demonstrate domain
specificity in that they process only one particular type of information
(color, shape, words, faces), whereas central systems are held to be
domain independent in that the type of information processed is
nonspecific (candidates would be memory, attention, executive functions).
According to Fodor, by processing only a limited type of information, they
can operate rapidly and efficiently. An additional claim is that modules may
be innately specified in the genetic code (van nature aangeboren).
- Domain specificity: the idea that a cognitive process (or brain region) is
dedicated solely to one particular type of information.
Computational and connectionist models of cognition:
- Neural network models: computational models in which information
processing occurs using many interconnected nodes. In plaats van een
centrale processor, werken veel kleine eenheden (nodes) samen om
patronen te herkennen of beslissingen te nemen.
- Nodes: the basic units of neural network modesl that are activated in
response to activity in other parts of the network. (De basisbouwstenen
van een neural network.
Elke node ontvangt input van andere nodes. Als de input sterk genoeg is, wordt
de node geactiveerd. Geactiveerde nodes sturen signalen door naar andere
nodes.)
- Deep neural networks: a neural network model containing multiple layers,
typically producing a simple-to-complex hierarchy of information
processing.
,The birth of cognitive neuroscience:
- The distinction between recording methods and stimulation methods is
crucial in cognitive neuroscience.
- The temporal resolution refers to the accuracy with which one can
measure when an event is occurring.
- The spatial resolution refers to the accuracy with which one can measure
where an event is occurring.
- The invasiveness of a method refers to whether the equipment is located
internally or externally.
- Hemodynamisch: veranderingen in de bloedstroom of zuurstof in het
bloed.
Method Method type Invasiveness Brain property
used
EEG/ERP Recording Noninvasive Electrical
Single-cell (and Recording Invasive Electrical
multi-unit)
recordings
TMS Stimulation Noninvasive Electromagnetic
tES Stimulation Noninvasive Electrical
MEG Recording Noninvasive Magnetic
PET Recording Invasive Hemodynamic
fMRI Recording Noninvasive Hemodynamic
fNIRS Recording Noninvasive Hemodynamic
Does cognitive psychology need the brain?
- Cognitive psychology developed substantially from the 1950s, using
information-processing models that do not make direct reference to the
brain. The claim is not that cognitive neuroscience is replacing cognitive
psychology, but merely that cognitive psychological theories can inform
theories and experiments in the neurosciences and vice versa. However
others have argued that this is impossible since information-processing
models do not make claims about the brain.
- Another distinction that has been used to contrast cognitive psychology
and cognitive neuroscience is that between software and hardware,
respectively. This derives from the familiar computer analogy in which one
can, supposedly, learn about information processing (software) without
knowing about the brain (hardware). This is to some extent true. The
computer analogy is a little misleading, since computer software is written
by people and information processing in the brain is not. Dus vergelijking
met computers:
, Cognitieve psychologie = software → beschrijft de structuur van
informatieverwerking, onafhankelijk van de fysieke implementatie.
Cognitieve neurowetenschap = hardware → onderzoekt hoe het brein deze
verwerking mogelijk maakt.
- Thus, cognitive psychology may be sufficient to tell us the structure of
information processing, but it may not answer deeper questions about why
information processing should be configured in that particular way. The
biological constraints imposed by the brain shape the nature and
limitations of cognition. Dus: sommige vragen kunnen alleen worden
beantwoord door het brein in beschouwing te nemen, niet alleen door
abstracte informatieverwerkingsmodellen.
Does neuroscience need cognitive psychology?
- One reason why phrenology failed is because the method had no real
scientific grounding, the same cannot be said of functional imaging.
Another reason why phrenology failed was that the psychological concepts
used were naïve. It is for this reason that functional imaging and other
advances in neuroscience do require the insights from cognitive
psychology to frame appropriate research questions and avoid becoming a
new phrenology.
The future of cognitive neuroscience
- In terms of a theoretical shift, there is a greater focus on understanding the
mind and brain as a network. On a practical level there is a shift towards
big data and more synthesizing approaches (such as meta-analyses) that
are motivated by a desire to protect future cognitive neuroscience
research from the so-called replication crisis,
- Replication crisis: systemic difficulties in being able to independently
reproduce published results that have been documented in many scientific
fields. Met andere woorden: een studie wordt gepubliceerd, maar wanneer
anderen hetzelfde experiment proberen, krijgen ze vaak andere resultaten.
From modules to networks:
- Network: a dynamically changing pattern of activity over several brain
regions. A brain might be a multitude of networks. Thus, not only do brain
regions have a degree of functional specialization, but entire networks may
also have some specializations.
- Connectome: a comprehensive map of neural connections in the brain that
may be thought of as its “wiring diagram.” Dus een connectome is een
kaart van het brein, die laat zien hoe neuronen en hersengebieden met
elkaar verbonden zijn en samenwerken om cognitieve functies mogelijk te
maken.
- The network architecture that supports cognition is derived from
biologically based observations of the structural and functional
connectome. This is supported by advanced mathematical tools such as
graph theory.
