INLEIDING SOCIOLOGIE
Index
Chapter 1 – Questions...............................................................................................................................................4
1.1: The sociological perspective......................................................................................................................4
1.2: Social problems..........................................................................................................................................4
1.3: Three aims of sociology..............................................................................................................................4
1.4: Three types of sociological questions........................................................................................................5
1.5: The art of asking good sociological questions............................................................................................5
1.6: Sociology and common sense....................................................................................................................5
1.7: Sociology as cumulative science................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2 – Theories.................................................................................................................................................6
2.2: Theories and explanations.........................................................................................................................6
2.3: What are useful sociological theories?......................................................................................................6
2.4: Durkheim’s theory of suicide.....................................................................................................................6
2.5: Concepts.....................................................................................................................................................6
2.6: Causality.....................................................................................................................................................7
2.7: Conceptual models.....................................................................................................................................7
2.8: Formal models............................................................................................................................................7
Chapter 3 – Methods.................................................................................................................................................8
3.1: Is your smartphone making you look stupid?............................................................................................8
3.2: Measurement quality.................................................................................................................................8
3.3: External validity..........................................................................................................................................8
3.4: Internal validity...........................................................................................................................................8
3.5: Exploratory research..................................................................................................................................9
3.6: Qualitative and quantitative methods.......................................................................................................9
3.7: Case study research....................................................................................................................................9
3.8: Administrative research.............................................................................................................................9
3.9: Survey research..........................................................................................................................................9
3.10: Big data research......................................................................................................................................9
3.11: Experimental research.............................................................................................................................9
3.12: Replication..............................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 4 – Perspectives.........................................................................................................................................11
4.1: The origins of sociological perspectives...................................................................................................11
1
, 4.2: Sociological themes and topics................................................................................................................11
4.3: Causal explaining or subjective understanding?......................................................................................11
4.4: Multilevel framework...............................................................................................................................11
Chapter 5 – Opinions...............................................................................................................................................13
5.2: Self-fulfilling prophecy.............................................................................................................................13
5.3: Conformity................................................................................................................................................13
5.4: Informational and normative social influence.........................................................................................13
5.5: Social learning theory...............................................................................................................................13
5.7: Diffusion of innovations...........................................................................................................................14
Chapter 6 – Norms..................................................................................................................................................15
6.2: What are social norms?............................................................................................................................15
6.3: Social control theory................................................................................................................................15
6.4: Internalized norms...................................................................................................................................15
6.5: Legal norms..............................................................................................................................................15
6.6: Why do norms emerge?...........................................................................................................................15
6.7: Cultural maladaptation and norm change...............................................................................................16
6.8: The dynamics of group distinction...........................................................................................................16
Chapter 7 – networks..............................................................................................................................................17
7.1: The friendship paradox............................................................................................................................17
7.2: Personal networks....................................................................................................................................17
7.3: Network size and hubs.............................................................................................................................17
7.4: Network density and transitivity..............................................................................................................18
7.5: The small world phenomenon.................................................................................................................18
7.6: Network change: loss-of-community?.....................................................................................................18
7.7: Networks and social cohesion..................................................................................................................19
7.8 Networks and social capital.......................................................................................................................19
Chapter 8 – Groups.................................................................................................................................................20
8.1: Groups unite and divide...........................................................................................................................20
8.2: Group segregation....................................................................................................................................20
8.3: The causes of group segregation.............................................................................................................21
8.4: In-group favouritism.................................................................................................................................21
Chapter 9 – Stratification and mobility...................................................................................................................23
9.1: What makes you happy?..........................................................................................................................23
9.2: Social class and status..............................................................................................................................23
9.3: Income and wealth...................................................................................................................................23
9.4: Long-term changes in stratification.........................................................................................................24
9.5: Social mobility..........................................................................................................................................24
2
, 9.6: Ascription and achievement....................................................................................................................24
9.7: Modernization and mobility theory.........................................................................................................24
9.8: Cultural reproduction theory...................................................................................................................24
9.9: The Great Gatsby Curve...........................................................................................................................25
Chapter 10 – Resources...........................................................................................................................................26
10.1: Human capital........................................................................................................................................26
10.2: Social capital...........................................................................................................................................26
10.3: Group affiliation and discrimination......................................................................................................26
10.4: Inequality of outcomes, opportunities and returns...............................................................................27
10.5: Gender inequality...................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 11 – Immigration and integration.............................................................................................................28
11.2: International migration..........................................................................................................................28
11.3: Integration: what does it mean?............................................................................................................28
11.4: Integration: changes over time?............................................................................................................28
11.5: Integration: social context effects?........................................................................................................28
Chapter 12 – Modernization...................................................................................................................................29
12.2: Wealth and health..................................................................................................................................29
12.3: Peace and safety....................................................................................................................................29
12.4: Rationalization........................................................................................................................................29
12.5: Technological progress...........................................................................................................................29
12.6: Scientization...........................................................................................................................................29
12.7 McDonaldization.....................................................................................................................................30
12.8: Value change..........................................................................................................................................30
Chapter 13 – Religion..............................................................................................................................................31
3
,CHAPTER 1 – QUESTIONS
1.1: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Individual perspective → type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on individual causes
Sociologists try to find an explanation for somebodies behavior by considering their social context.
Social context → social environment in which people are embedded
This context can be a country or family or neighbourhood. Contexts can change and consequences follow
because of these changes.
Sociological imagination/perspective → type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on social causes
The sociological perspective is different from the individual perspective not only because it focuses on social
causes of human behavior, but also because it considers collective outcomes. It examines social phenomena.
Social phenomena → collective human behavior
How is the sociological perspective on human behavior related to the individual perspective? There are three
possible relations:
1. Supplemental perspectives (complementair)
The two perspectives together provide a more comprehensive explanation for human behavior
2. Alternative perspectives (alternatief)
One of the two perspectives does not have to be taken into account to explain the human behavior
3. Proximate and ultimate causes (directe en diepe oorzaken)
Individual causes can be seen as proximate causes (factors that are close to the phenomena to be
explained). Ultimate causes are factors that underlie proximate causes and thus explain proximate
causes.
Micro level → the level at which individuals operate
Meso level → social contexts at the intermediate level
Macro level → social contexts that are broader than meso level units
1.2: SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A social problem:
1. goes beyond the individual (affects many people)
2. is an issue about which many people are concerned (it is in conflict with certain values)
Therefore not every problem is a social problem. A problem related to the personal life of an individual is called
personal trouble. Some personal troubles also go beyond the individual and indicate a social problem.
Social problems fluctuate over time and differ across societies
1.3: THREE AIMS OF SOCIOLOGY
Three core aims of sociology:
1. Describe
Provide accurate descriptions of social phenomena
2. Explain
Come up with explanations and subsequently use empirical date to examine whether these
explanations are true
3. Apply
Two ways in which sociologists can apply their work:
- To predict
- To develop and evaluate social interventions
Societal relevance → relevance of sociological work for the understanding of social problems
4
, 1.4: THREE TYPES OF SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS
A normative question entails value judgements : about what people consider as good or bad for themselves or
for society at large. Answers to these questions typically differ between people, depending on their beliefs,
goals, norms and values.
Sociologists ask scientific questions. These do not entail value judgments. There are three types of sociological
questions:
1. Descriptive questions
2. Theoretical questions
3. Application questions
1.5: THE ART OF ASKING GOOD SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS
Two elements for developing a good sociological question are precision and relevance. There should be four
elements in a good sociological question:
1. The human behavior you are interested in
2. The social context
3. The period
4. The population
(Wie, wat, waar, wanneer)
In order to ask a relevant question, it is wise to do a literature review (existing background information) before
you start working on your own study.
False theoretical question → theoretical question which aims to explain something that does not exist
Sociologists often make up comparative-case questions. These questions include some comparison of cases,
such as context or time frames.
1.6: SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON SENSE
Private sociologists → the way human beings, in daily life, make sense of the social world. As such they are
prone to, among other things, intuitive thinking, implicit reasoning, development of incoherent and vague
ideas, keeping knowledge private and searching for confirmations
Academic sociology → the way academic institutions describe and the social world. Characteristics are the
systematic way of gathering knowledge, making explanations public and subject to criticism, the development
of coherent theories and rigorous testing.
1.7: SOCIOLOGY AS CUMULATIVE SCIENCE
Cumulative science → the practice that theories and observations of earlier studies are incorporated in the
work of successive studies
Background knowledge → the theories and observations that are known before the study commences
5
Index
Chapter 1 – Questions...............................................................................................................................................4
1.1: The sociological perspective......................................................................................................................4
1.2: Social problems..........................................................................................................................................4
1.3: Three aims of sociology..............................................................................................................................4
1.4: Three types of sociological questions........................................................................................................5
1.5: The art of asking good sociological questions............................................................................................5
1.6: Sociology and common sense....................................................................................................................5
1.7: Sociology as cumulative science................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2 – Theories.................................................................................................................................................6
2.2: Theories and explanations.........................................................................................................................6
2.3: What are useful sociological theories?......................................................................................................6
2.4: Durkheim’s theory of suicide.....................................................................................................................6
2.5: Concepts.....................................................................................................................................................6
2.6: Causality.....................................................................................................................................................7
2.7: Conceptual models.....................................................................................................................................7
2.8: Formal models............................................................................................................................................7
Chapter 3 – Methods.................................................................................................................................................8
3.1: Is your smartphone making you look stupid?............................................................................................8
3.2: Measurement quality.................................................................................................................................8
3.3: External validity..........................................................................................................................................8
3.4: Internal validity...........................................................................................................................................8
3.5: Exploratory research..................................................................................................................................9
3.6: Qualitative and quantitative methods.......................................................................................................9
3.7: Case study research....................................................................................................................................9
3.8: Administrative research.............................................................................................................................9
3.9: Survey research..........................................................................................................................................9
3.10: Big data research......................................................................................................................................9
3.11: Experimental research.............................................................................................................................9
3.12: Replication..............................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 4 – Perspectives.........................................................................................................................................11
4.1: The origins of sociological perspectives...................................................................................................11
1
, 4.2: Sociological themes and topics................................................................................................................11
4.3: Causal explaining or subjective understanding?......................................................................................11
4.4: Multilevel framework...............................................................................................................................11
Chapter 5 – Opinions...............................................................................................................................................13
5.2: Self-fulfilling prophecy.............................................................................................................................13
5.3: Conformity................................................................................................................................................13
5.4: Informational and normative social influence.........................................................................................13
5.5: Social learning theory...............................................................................................................................13
5.7: Diffusion of innovations...........................................................................................................................14
Chapter 6 – Norms..................................................................................................................................................15
6.2: What are social norms?............................................................................................................................15
6.3: Social control theory................................................................................................................................15
6.4: Internalized norms...................................................................................................................................15
6.5: Legal norms..............................................................................................................................................15
6.6: Why do norms emerge?...........................................................................................................................15
6.7: Cultural maladaptation and norm change...............................................................................................16
6.8: The dynamics of group distinction...........................................................................................................16
Chapter 7 – networks..............................................................................................................................................17
7.1: The friendship paradox............................................................................................................................17
7.2: Personal networks....................................................................................................................................17
7.3: Network size and hubs.............................................................................................................................17
7.4: Network density and transitivity..............................................................................................................18
7.5: The small world phenomenon.................................................................................................................18
7.6: Network change: loss-of-community?.....................................................................................................18
7.7: Networks and social cohesion..................................................................................................................19
7.8 Networks and social capital.......................................................................................................................19
Chapter 8 – Groups.................................................................................................................................................20
8.1: Groups unite and divide...........................................................................................................................20
8.2: Group segregation....................................................................................................................................20
8.3: The causes of group segregation.............................................................................................................21
8.4: In-group favouritism.................................................................................................................................21
Chapter 9 – Stratification and mobility...................................................................................................................23
9.1: What makes you happy?..........................................................................................................................23
9.2: Social class and status..............................................................................................................................23
9.3: Income and wealth...................................................................................................................................23
9.4: Long-term changes in stratification.........................................................................................................24
9.5: Social mobility..........................................................................................................................................24
2
, 9.6: Ascription and achievement....................................................................................................................24
9.7: Modernization and mobility theory.........................................................................................................24
9.8: Cultural reproduction theory...................................................................................................................24
9.9: The Great Gatsby Curve...........................................................................................................................25
Chapter 10 – Resources...........................................................................................................................................26
10.1: Human capital........................................................................................................................................26
10.2: Social capital...........................................................................................................................................26
10.3: Group affiliation and discrimination......................................................................................................26
10.4: Inequality of outcomes, opportunities and returns...............................................................................27
10.5: Gender inequality...................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 11 – Immigration and integration.............................................................................................................28
11.2: International migration..........................................................................................................................28
11.3: Integration: what does it mean?............................................................................................................28
11.4: Integration: changes over time?............................................................................................................28
11.5: Integration: social context effects?........................................................................................................28
Chapter 12 – Modernization...................................................................................................................................29
12.2: Wealth and health..................................................................................................................................29
12.3: Peace and safety....................................................................................................................................29
12.4: Rationalization........................................................................................................................................29
12.5: Technological progress...........................................................................................................................29
12.6: Scientization...........................................................................................................................................29
12.7 McDonaldization.....................................................................................................................................30
12.8: Value change..........................................................................................................................................30
Chapter 13 – Religion..............................................................................................................................................31
3
,CHAPTER 1 – QUESTIONS
1.1: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Individual perspective → type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on individual causes
Sociologists try to find an explanation for somebodies behavior by considering their social context.
Social context → social environment in which people are embedded
This context can be a country or family or neighbourhood. Contexts can change and consequences follow
because of these changes.
Sociological imagination/perspective → type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on social causes
The sociological perspective is different from the individual perspective not only because it focuses on social
causes of human behavior, but also because it considers collective outcomes. It examines social phenomena.
Social phenomena → collective human behavior
How is the sociological perspective on human behavior related to the individual perspective? There are three
possible relations:
1. Supplemental perspectives (complementair)
The two perspectives together provide a more comprehensive explanation for human behavior
2. Alternative perspectives (alternatief)
One of the two perspectives does not have to be taken into account to explain the human behavior
3. Proximate and ultimate causes (directe en diepe oorzaken)
Individual causes can be seen as proximate causes (factors that are close to the phenomena to be
explained). Ultimate causes are factors that underlie proximate causes and thus explain proximate
causes.
Micro level → the level at which individuals operate
Meso level → social contexts at the intermediate level
Macro level → social contexts that are broader than meso level units
1.2: SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A social problem:
1. goes beyond the individual (affects many people)
2. is an issue about which many people are concerned (it is in conflict with certain values)
Therefore not every problem is a social problem. A problem related to the personal life of an individual is called
personal trouble. Some personal troubles also go beyond the individual and indicate a social problem.
Social problems fluctuate over time and differ across societies
1.3: THREE AIMS OF SOCIOLOGY
Three core aims of sociology:
1. Describe
Provide accurate descriptions of social phenomena
2. Explain
Come up with explanations and subsequently use empirical date to examine whether these
explanations are true
3. Apply
Two ways in which sociologists can apply their work:
- To predict
- To develop and evaluate social interventions
Societal relevance → relevance of sociological work for the understanding of social problems
4
, 1.4: THREE TYPES OF SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS
A normative question entails value judgements : about what people consider as good or bad for themselves or
for society at large. Answers to these questions typically differ between people, depending on their beliefs,
goals, norms and values.
Sociologists ask scientific questions. These do not entail value judgments. There are three types of sociological
questions:
1. Descriptive questions
2. Theoretical questions
3. Application questions
1.5: THE ART OF ASKING GOOD SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS
Two elements for developing a good sociological question are precision and relevance. There should be four
elements in a good sociological question:
1. The human behavior you are interested in
2. The social context
3. The period
4. The population
(Wie, wat, waar, wanneer)
In order to ask a relevant question, it is wise to do a literature review (existing background information) before
you start working on your own study.
False theoretical question → theoretical question which aims to explain something that does not exist
Sociologists often make up comparative-case questions. These questions include some comparison of cases,
such as context or time frames.
1.6: SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON SENSE
Private sociologists → the way human beings, in daily life, make sense of the social world. As such they are
prone to, among other things, intuitive thinking, implicit reasoning, development of incoherent and vague
ideas, keeping knowledge private and searching for confirmations
Academic sociology → the way academic institutions describe and the social world. Characteristics are the
systematic way of gathering knowledge, making explanations public and subject to criticism, the development
of coherent theories and rigorous testing.
1.7: SOCIOLOGY AS CUMULATIVE SCIENCE
Cumulative science → the practice that theories and observations of earlier studies are incorporated in the
work of successive studies
Background knowledge → the theories and observations that are known before the study commences
5
