BRM II - Literature
Business Research Methods II - Literature Summary
Merriam (2014) Chapter 1 - What is qualitative research?
- There are many definitions of research, but what they all have in common is the notion of
inquiring into, or investigating something in a systematic manner.
- Research is typically divided into the categories of basic and applied. Applied research is
undertaken to improve the quality of practice of a particular discipline. Basic research is
motivated by intellectual interest in a phenomenon and has as its goal the extension of
knowledge.
- Forms of applied research:
• Evaluation research - collects data or evidence on the worth or value of a program, process,
or techniques. It aims to establish a basis for decision making.
• Action research - aims to address a specific problem within a specific setting, such as a
classroom, a workplace, program, or an organisation.
- Research is a systematic process by which we know more about something than we did before
engaging in the process. We engage in this process to contribute to the knowledge base in a
field (basic research), improve the practice of a particular discipline (applied research), assess
the value of something (evaluation research), or address a particular, localised problem (action
research).
- Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences,
how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to their experiences. Hence,
uncovering the meaning of those involved.
- Where does qualitative research come from? → Anthropologists and sociologists who were
asking questions about people's lives, the social and cultural contexts in which they lived, the
ways in which they understood their worlds, and so on.
- An understanding of the nature of qualitative research can be gained by looking at its
philosophical foundations. However, there is almost no consistency across writers in how this
aspect of this type of research is discussed. Some believe traditions and theoretical
underpinnings, theoretical traditions and orientations, theoretical paradigms, worldviews, or
epistemology and theoretical perspectives. In qualitative research, each writer makes sense of
the underlying philosophical influences in his or her own way.
- A positivist approach assumes that reality exists "out there" and it is observable, stable, and
measurable. The knowledge gained here is scientific and includes the establishment of "laws".
- A logical empiricism approach seeks unity in science and asserts that there are no
fundamental methodological differences between natural and social sciences.
!1
, BRM II - Literature
- The postpositivism approach recognises that knowledge is relative rather than absolute but it
is possible, using empirical evidence, to distinguish between more and less plausible claims.
- Interpretive research, which is where qualitative research is located, assumes that reality is
socially constructed, that is, there is no single, observable reality. Rather, there are multiple
realities, or interpretations, of a single event. Here, research construct knowledge (instead of
finding it).
- "In the interpretive research view, individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live
and work. They develop subjective meanings of their experiences. These meanings are varied
and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the complexity of views. Often these subjective
meanings are negotiated socially and historically. In other words, they are not simply imprinted
on individuals but are formed through interaction with others (social constructivism) and
through historical and cultural norms that operate in individuals' lives." (Cresswell, 2007)
- The most basic philosophical assumption of Husserl (1913) was that we can only know what we
experience by attending to perceptions and meanings. The experience a person has includes
the way in which the experience in interpreted. There is no "objective" experience that stands
outside its interpretation.
- In critical research the goal is to critique and challenge, to transform and empower. Those who
engage in this type of research frame their research questions in terms of power.
- A postmodern world is one where the rationality, scientific method, and certainties of the
modern world no longer hold. There is no single "truth".
- Philosophical perspectives summarised:
!2
, BRM II - Literature
- The four orientations to research (in the table above) might intersect in various studies.
- Several definitions of qualitative research exist. Three highlighted by Merriam (2014):
• "Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world." (Denzin and
Lincoln, 2005)
• "Qualitative research is an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which
seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the
frequency, or certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world." (Van
Maanen, 1979)
• "Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as part of a
particular context and the interactions there." (Patton, 1985)
- Qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or
interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. They are interested in
understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their
world and the experiences they have in the world.
- Four characteristics that are key to understanding the nature of qualitative research:
1. The focus is on process, understanding, and meaning
2. The researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis
3. The process is inductive
4. The product is richly descriptive
- The overall purpose of qualitative research is to achieve an understanding of how people make
sense out of their lives, delineate the process of meaning-making, and describe how people
interpret what they experience.
- The key concern of qualitative research is understanding the phenomenon of interest from the
participants' perspectives, not the researcher's (the emic perspective).
- Rather than trying to eliminate the biases or subjectivities, it is important to identify them and
monitor them as to how they may be shaping the collection and interpretation of data.
- Inductive logic refers to the process of gathering data to build concepts, hypotheses, or
theories rather than deductively testing hypotheses as in postpositivist research.
- Qualitative researchers build toward theory from observations and intuitive understandings
gleaned from being in the field.
- Research must be richly descriptive entailing that there are likely to be descriptions of the
context, the participants involved, and the activities of interest. In addition, data in the form of
quotes from documents, field notes, and participant interviews, virtual communication, or a
combination of these are always included in support of the findings of the study.
- The design of a qualitative study is emergent and flexible, responsive to changing conditions of
the study in progress.
!3
Business Research Methods II - Literature Summary
Merriam (2014) Chapter 1 - What is qualitative research?
- There are many definitions of research, but what they all have in common is the notion of
inquiring into, or investigating something in a systematic manner.
- Research is typically divided into the categories of basic and applied. Applied research is
undertaken to improve the quality of practice of a particular discipline. Basic research is
motivated by intellectual interest in a phenomenon and has as its goal the extension of
knowledge.
- Forms of applied research:
• Evaluation research - collects data or evidence on the worth or value of a program, process,
or techniques. It aims to establish a basis for decision making.
• Action research - aims to address a specific problem within a specific setting, such as a
classroom, a workplace, program, or an organisation.
- Research is a systematic process by which we know more about something than we did before
engaging in the process. We engage in this process to contribute to the knowledge base in a
field (basic research), improve the practice of a particular discipline (applied research), assess
the value of something (evaluation research), or address a particular, localised problem (action
research).
- Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences,
how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to their experiences. Hence,
uncovering the meaning of those involved.
- Where does qualitative research come from? → Anthropologists and sociologists who were
asking questions about people's lives, the social and cultural contexts in which they lived, the
ways in which they understood their worlds, and so on.
- An understanding of the nature of qualitative research can be gained by looking at its
philosophical foundations. However, there is almost no consistency across writers in how this
aspect of this type of research is discussed. Some believe traditions and theoretical
underpinnings, theoretical traditions and orientations, theoretical paradigms, worldviews, or
epistemology and theoretical perspectives. In qualitative research, each writer makes sense of
the underlying philosophical influences in his or her own way.
- A positivist approach assumes that reality exists "out there" and it is observable, stable, and
measurable. The knowledge gained here is scientific and includes the establishment of "laws".
- A logical empiricism approach seeks unity in science and asserts that there are no
fundamental methodological differences between natural and social sciences.
!1
, BRM II - Literature
- The postpositivism approach recognises that knowledge is relative rather than absolute but it
is possible, using empirical evidence, to distinguish between more and less plausible claims.
- Interpretive research, which is where qualitative research is located, assumes that reality is
socially constructed, that is, there is no single, observable reality. Rather, there are multiple
realities, or interpretations, of a single event. Here, research construct knowledge (instead of
finding it).
- "In the interpretive research view, individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live
and work. They develop subjective meanings of their experiences. These meanings are varied
and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the complexity of views. Often these subjective
meanings are negotiated socially and historically. In other words, they are not simply imprinted
on individuals but are formed through interaction with others (social constructivism) and
through historical and cultural norms that operate in individuals' lives." (Cresswell, 2007)
- The most basic philosophical assumption of Husserl (1913) was that we can only know what we
experience by attending to perceptions and meanings. The experience a person has includes
the way in which the experience in interpreted. There is no "objective" experience that stands
outside its interpretation.
- In critical research the goal is to critique and challenge, to transform and empower. Those who
engage in this type of research frame their research questions in terms of power.
- A postmodern world is one where the rationality, scientific method, and certainties of the
modern world no longer hold. There is no single "truth".
- Philosophical perspectives summarised:
!2
, BRM II - Literature
- The four orientations to research (in the table above) might intersect in various studies.
- Several definitions of qualitative research exist. Three highlighted by Merriam (2014):
• "Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world." (Denzin and
Lincoln, 2005)
• "Qualitative research is an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which
seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the
frequency, or certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world." (Van
Maanen, 1979)
• "Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as part of a
particular context and the interactions there." (Patton, 1985)
- Qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or
interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. They are interested in
understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their
world and the experiences they have in the world.
- Four characteristics that are key to understanding the nature of qualitative research:
1. The focus is on process, understanding, and meaning
2. The researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis
3. The process is inductive
4. The product is richly descriptive
- The overall purpose of qualitative research is to achieve an understanding of how people make
sense out of their lives, delineate the process of meaning-making, and describe how people
interpret what they experience.
- The key concern of qualitative research is understanding the phenomenon of interest from the
participants' perspectives, not the researcher's (the emic perspective).
- Rather than trying to eliminate the biases or subjectivities, it is important to identify them and
monitor them as to how they may be shaping the collection and interpretation of data.
- Inductive logic refers to the process of gathering data to build concepts, hypotheses, or
theories rather than deductively testing hypotheses as in postpositivist research.
- Qualitative researchers build toward theory from observations and intuitive understandings
gleaned from being in the field.
- Research must be richly descriptive entailing that there are likely to be descriptions of the
context, the participants involved, and the activities of interest. In addition, data in the form of
quotes from documents, field notes, and participant interviews, virtual communication, or a
combination of these are always included in support of the findings of the study.
- The design of a qualitative study is emergent and flexible, responsive to changing conditions of
the study in progress.
!3
