STRATEGY AS A WICKED PROBLEM (CAMILLUS)
Wicked problems Problemen met ontelbare oorzaken, moeilijk te beschrijven en hebben geen
goed antwoord (hoe meer onenigheid, hoe meer wicked het probleem)
Eigenschappen - Geen definitieve formulering
wicked problems - Zoeken naar oplossingen stopt nooit
- Oplossingen niet ‘goed of fout’, maar ‘goed of slecht’ (beoordeling)
- Geen ultieme test, oplossingen hebben onverwachte consequenties
- Oplossing is ‘one shot’ operation (geen trial and error)
- Gelimiteerde set met oplossingen
- Elk wicked problem is uniek (ervaring helpt niet)
- Kan beschouwd worden als symptoom voor ander probleem
- Discrepantie (verschillende stakeholders met verschillende ideeën)
- Oplossers verantwoordelijk voor consequenties (no right to be wrong)
Managing the - Betrek stakeholders, opschrijven van meningen en communiceren
wickedness of - Definieer de corporate identity (waarden, competenties en aspiraties)
strategy - Focus op actie (experimenten en muddling through door kleine veranderingen)
- Feed-forward oriëntatie (feedback helpt voor het verleden, bij wicked
problems constant kijken naar toekomstige omgeving)
BEYOND PRODUCTIVITY LOSS IN BRAINSTORMING GROUPS
(STROEBE, NIJSTAD & RIETZSCHEL)
Principles of Deferral of judgement (kritiek van anderen niet toegestaan bij idee generatie) and
brainstorming quantity breeds quality (mensen durven meer te zeggen zonder kritiek)
Rules of - Criticism is not allowed
brainstorming - Free-wheeling is welcome (encourage generation of wild ideas)
- Quantity is wanted
- Combination and improvement are sought
Phases of 1. Productivity (number of ideas)
brainstorming 2. Cognitive (content of ideas: categorization)
3. Creativity (quality of ideas: originality/feasibility)
Productivity loss in Number (productivity) and quality of ideas (creativity) generated in an interacting
brainstorming groups group are lower than in a nominal group
Social inhibition Productivity loss because the presence of others inhibits airing new ideas
(participants produce less ideas with controversial subjects)
Social loafing Productivity loss because people don’t participate by reason of expecting others
with more problem-relevant knowledge are doing the work anyway (free riding).
Economic theory of group productivity: profiteren van public goods, vorm van
free riding. This is determined by three factors:
- Cost of individual contribution
- Perceived identifiability of individual contributions (increases with group size)
- Perceived dispensability (decreases with increasing group size)
Production blocking Productivity loss because one person speaks at a time and others have to wait.
While trying to remember their idea, they cannot think of new ones (vertraging).
Two ways: disrupt activation of images or interrupt continuation train of thought
Memory confusion Group members more satisfied with performance than individual brainstormers
because group members have difficulty distinguishing between ideas they have
generated themselves and ideas generated by other group members and, as a
result, overestimate their own contribution
Unavailability of Group members more satisfied with performance than individual brainstormers
comparison persons because in individual brainstorming sessions people are uncertain and anxious
about their own performance (in group sessions their performance is similar to
other members and they are therefore satisfied with own performance)
, Cognitive failure This is when participants in brainstorming sessions are unsuccessful in their
experiences search for new ideas. Group members are more satisfied with performance than
individual brainstormers because these experiences are less likely to happen in
groups (—> less ideas per person and time to relax and listen to others)
SAM Model of memory retrieval
SIAM Theorie over de manier waarop individuen ideeën genereren (niet direct uit
memory, wel bestaande kennis). It assumes that there are two memory systems:
- Limited capacity working memory (WM) —> conscious operations performed
- Unlimited capacity long-term memory (LTM) —> all previously acquired
knowledge stored —> elements interconnected via network of associations
(associative memory)
Long-term memory Elements are interconnected via a network of associations (associative memory).
(LTM) LTM is partitioned into images, no visual or spatial representation is implied,
which form the units of LTM. These images consist of semantically related
elements
Brainstorming Brainstorming is a repeated search for idea in associative memory. It is a two-
according to SIAM stage process: stage of knowledge activation and stage of idea generation
Category repetitions When two successive ideas are coded into the same category, they are
generated from the same image (homogeneous)
Category fluency The number of ideas produced per category (heterogeneous)
Adjusted ratio of Een meting van de mate waarin opeenvolgende ideeën in dezelfde categorie
clustering (ARC) vallen, gecorrigeerd voor verandering
Path of least Mensen neigen om ideeën te genereren met de minste cognitieve moeite als
resistance model mogelijk (eerst conventionele ideeën en daarna pas originele ideeën) —>
kwantiteit zorgt voor kwaliteit
Generating ideas - Homogeneous stimulation (more ideas in a specific category, greater
processing depth, less diversity) —> high category diversity
- Heterogeneous stimulation (increasing category diversity with more ideas per
category, less depth) —> high within-category fluency
Priming Voorafgaand aan de sessie de mensen laten nadenken over het probleem
Dialectical Herkennen dat er spanningen zijn tussen verschillende dimensies die relateren
complexity aan een focal (= brandpunt) topic —> breder denken (multiple perspectives)
Elaborative Ontstaat als er een enkelvoudig, dominant thema is ontwikkeld op een complexe
complexity manier —> dieper denken (single perspective)
Group creativity Generation of ideas, insights, and problem solutions that are both original (novel)
and appropriate (relevant/feasible), this requires that members engage in
independent thinking rather than striving for consensus. Sprake van een groep
bij competitieve onderhandelingen (ipv samenwerking), verandering van
lidmaatschap (ipv stabiliteit) en individuele waarden (ipv collectieve waarden)
Dimensions of idea - Originality (mean to find a solution outside realm of conventional solution)
quality - Feasibility
Wicked problems Problemen met ontelbare oorzaken, moeilijk te beschrijven en hebben geen
goed antwoord (hoe meer onenigheid, hoe meer wicked het probleem)
Eigenschappen - Geen definitieve formulering
wicked problems - Zoeken naar oplossingen stopt nooit
- Oplossingen niet ‘goed of fout’, maar ‘goed of slecht’ (beoordeling)
- Geen ultieme test, oplossingen hebben onverwachte consequenties
- Oplossing is ‘one shot’ operation (geen trial and error)
- Gelimiteerde set met oplossingen
- Elk wicked problem is uniek (ervaring helpt niet)
- Kan beschouwd worden als symptoom voor ander probleem
- Discrepantie (verschillende stakeholders met verschillende ideeën)
- Oplossers verantwoordelijk voor consequenties (no right to be wrong)
Managing the - Betrek stakeholders, opschrijven van meningen en communiceren
wickedness of - Definieer de corporate identity (waarden, competenties en aspiraties)
strategy - Focus op actie (experimenten en muddling through door kleine veranderingen)
- Feed-forward oriëntatie (feedback helpt voor het verleden, bij wicked
problems constant kijken naar toekomstige omgeving)
BEYOND PRODUCTIVITY LOSS IN BRAINSTORMING GROUPS
(STROEBE, NIJSTAD & RIETZSCHEL)
Principles of Deferral of judgement (kritiek van anderen niet toegestaan bij idee generatie) and
brainstorming quantity breeds quality (mensen durven meer te zeggen zonder kritiek)
Rules of - Criticism is not allowed
brainstorming - Free-wheeling is welcome (encourage generation of wild ideas)
- Quantity is wanted
- Combination and improvement are sought
Phases of 1. Productivity (number of ideas)
brainstorming 2. Cognitive (content of ideas: categorization)
3. Creativity (quality of ideas: originality/feasibility)
Productivity loss in Number (productivity) and quality of ideas (creativity) generated in an interacting
brainstorming groups group are lower than in a nominal group
Social inhibition Productivity loss because the presence of others inhibits airing new ideas
(participants produce less ideas with controversial subjects)
Social loafing Productivity loss because people don’t participate by reason of expecting others
with more problem-relevant knowledge are doing the work anyway (free riding).
Economic theory of group productivity: profiteren van public goods, vorm van
free riding. This is determined by three factors:
- Cost of individual contribution
- Perceived identifiability of individual contributions (increases with group size)
- Perceived dispensability (decreases with increasing group size)
Production blocking Productivity loss because one person speaks at a time and others have to wait.
While trying to remember their idea, they cannot think of new ones (vertraging).
Two ways: disrupt activation of images or interrupt continuation train of thought
Memory confusion Group members more satisfied with performance than individual brainstormers
because group members have difficulty distinguishing between ideas they have
generated themselves and ideas generated by other group members and, as a
result, overestimate their own contribution
Unavailability of Group members more satisfied with performance than individual brainstormers
comparison persons because in individual brainstorming sessions people are uncertain and anxious
about their own performance (in group sessions their performance is similar to
other members and they are therefore satisfied with own performance)
, Cognitive failure This is when participants in brainstorming sessions are unsuccessful in their
experiences search for new ideas. Group members are more satisfied with performance than
individual brainstormers because these experiences are less likely to happen in
groups (—> less ideas per person and time to relax and listen to others)
SAM Model of memory retrieval
SIAM Theorie over de manier waarop individuen ideeën genereren (niet direct uit
memory, wel bestaande kennis). It assumes that there are two memory systems:
- Limited capacity working memory (WM) —> conscious operations performed
- Unlimited capacity long-term memory (LTM) —> all previously acquired
knowledge stored —> elements interconnected via network of associations
(associative memory)
Long-term memory Elements are interconnected via a network of associations (associative memory).
(LTM) LTM is partitioned into images, no visual or spatial representation is implied,
which form the units of LTM. These images consist of semantically related
elements
Brainstorming Brainstorming is a repeated search for idea in associative memory. It is a two-
according to SIAM stage process: stage of knowledge activation and stage of idea generation
Category repetitions When two successive ideas are coded into the same category, they are
generated from the same image (homogeneous)
Category fluency The number of ideas produced per category (heterogeneous)
Adjusted ratio of Een meting van de mate waarin opeenvolgende ideeën in dezelfde categorie
clustering (ARC) vallen, gecorrigeerd voor verandering
Path of least Mensen neigen om ideeën te genereren met de minste cognitieve moeite als
resistance model mogelijk (eerst conventionele ideeën en daarna pas originele ideeën) —>
kwantiteit zorgt voor kwaliteit
Generating ideas - Homogeneous stimulation (more ideas in a specific category, greater
processing depth, less diversity) —> high category diversity
- Heterogeneous stimulation (increasing category diversity with more ideas per
category, less depth) —> high within-category fluency
Priming Voorafgaand aan de sessie de mensen laten nadenken over het probleem
Dialectical Herkennen dat er spanningen zijn tussen verschillende dimensies die relateren
complexity aan een focal (= brandpunt) topic —> breder denken (multiple perspectives)
Elaborative Ontstaat als er een enkelvoudig, dominant thema is ontwikkeld op een complexe
complexity manier —> dieper denken (single perspective)
Group creativity Generation of ideas, insights, and problem solutions that are both original (novel)
and appropriate (relevant/feasible), this requires that members engage in
independent thinking rather than striving for consensus. Sprake van een groep
bij competitieve onderhandelingen (ipv samenwerking), verandering van
lidmaatschap (ipv stabiliteit) en individuele waarden (ipv collectieve waarden)
Dimensions of idea - Originality (mean to find a solution outside realm of conventional solution)
quality - Feasibility
