Space & Environment in the European Union: full summary!!

Space & Environment in the European Union
EU governance
What is the EU?  a treaty-based organisation, member states may withdraw
 Has some state-like characteristics, but never in full
 Is a funding machinery
 A common market within common rules
o Rules at each level need to be aligned to each other
o The EU does not enforce its own laws
 It adopts legislation
 Supremacy of EU law does not exist in all policy areas
 A geo-political project
o External trade policy
o Foreign & defence policy coordination
o Speaking with one voice in international organizations
 Climate agreements
 World Trade Organization
o Development policy, international peace-keeping missions
Member States (MS):
o All have their own constitution
o The EU treaties function as a constitution as well
o MS may withdraw (Brexit)

Federalism = the ideal of a federal union (late 1940s)
 The “de facto” organization of a political system, spread over different
levels of government
 A centralized EU ‘super-state’
The European Union:
 Has ‘supranational’ decision powers, but not in all policy areas
 Competition policy = the Commission decides alone
o Or the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers
 No direct implementation in MS -> national variation
 Joint decision trap = risk-averse decision-making, because it is difficult
to move policies away from the ‘status quo’ (the existing state of affairs)
European Parliament:
o Very powerful, but limited media attention
o National politics dominate the public debate

European Commission:
o Very influential, council work dominated by civil servants
o System depends on interaction between EU and MS (civil servants)

,History of European integration
= History of treaties and enlargements
1945 – 1951: the runup to the ECSC
 End of WW2 - > start of Cold War (geopolitics)
o reconstruction of Europe
 Pushes for European integration:
o Marshall plan: US aid on condition of EU cooperation
o Fear of communist revolts (mainly in Italy and Germany)
 Interdependence as solution to inter-state rivalries (earlier ideas on
federalisation)
 Various intergovernmental responses:
o NATO & Council of Europe (Human rights)
 1951: Paris Treaty (ECSC)
o 1950: Schuman-Declaration
o Intention to build a Coal and Steel community (beyond
intergovernmental cooperation)
 France: a way to restrain Germany and secure access to
natural sources
o Germany and Italy looked for ways to re-gain international
legitimacy
1952 – 1957: from Paris to Rome
 Defence and Political community failed (too sensitive)
 Blows to global power of France and UK
o Military defeats and decolonization
 1957: Treaty of Rome (European economic community + EURATOM)
o Creation of a common market
 Tree trade inside EEC, external tariffs, international
competition policy
o Common Agricultural policy, Regional funds, Social funds, Nuclear
Energy
The workings of the EEC: ‘Community Method’
- Commission
o Not a decision maker, but exclusive right of legislative initiative
- Assembly (later the European Parliament)
o Advisory function only
o Until 1979: delegates from national parliaments.
 From 1979: elections
- Council of Ministers (per policy sector)
o Legislates
o Voting rules depend on policy sector
Stagnation in the 60s:
 Charles de Gaulle: blocked accession of the UK twice
o Blocked decision-making in the Council -> the ‘empty chair crisis’
 Led to ‘Luxembourg Compromise’: when there is a vital
interest, states are not outvoted
Optimism of early 1970s: DK, UK, IE join the European Community
 First non-economic policies adopted (environment!), backed by Court of
Justice
 But then: era of economic stagnation and inflation began

,  Margaret Thatcher: era of economic downturn
o Failing agricultural policy (subsidized overproduction)
o UK did not accept being a net contributor


1986: Single European Act
 Expansion of Treaty of Rome
o Creating a truly open market
o Revision of QMV (Qualified Majority voting) rules in the Council
o European Parliament gets a formal say (cooperation procedure)
1989: The end of the Cold War
 Optimism: German reunification, ‘the end of history’, European integration
1993: Maastricht Treaty -> European Union
 1st Pillar: the EEC/SEA as we knew it, but:
o More policy issues included
o Co-decision procedure
o More issues Unanimity (QMV)
 2nd Pillar: Common Foreign and Security Policy
o EP not involved, no legislation
 3 Pillar: Justice and Home Affairs
rd

o EP not involved, EUROPOL
 Extra: commitment to common currency
1999: Amsterdam Treaty
 1st Pillar: reform of co-decision so that EP becomes truly equal to the
Council
 2nd Pillar: include Defence cooperation: high representation
 3rd Pillar: import Schenen into EU
2003: Nice Treaty
 Extension of co-decision to other policy areas
 Unanimity -> QMV in more policy areas
 Reform of QMV rules (point system)
 De facto merger of 1st and 3rd pillar
 1 Commissioner per member state
 Calls for simplification
Constitutional Treaty & Lisbon Treaty: “convention on the future of Europe”
 Idea: prepare a draft constitution (still a treaty), and make it short and
simple
o More power to the European Parliament
o Legal simplification and extra power in criminal prosecution
o Symbols like flag, anthem, etc.
2009: Lisbon Treaty
 European Council now a formal institution with a president
 Co-decision becomes the norm
 Reduction of Commissioners in Commission (not implemented)
 Procedure for leaving the EU
Widening = more member states join the EU
Deeping = the EU regulates over more subject areas, and never more deeply

, General trend: Less unanimity, more qualified majority voting in the Council,
Stronger role for the European Parliament




The EU and money
The N.A.T.O model: four key policy instruments for governments:
1. Nodality: centralized communication (EU: weak)
2. Authority: rule-making and enforcement (EU: strong, but indirect)
3. Treasure: financial incentives (EU: it depends; scattered)
4. Organisation: structure of public service provision (EU: medium, and
indirect)
Financial incentives -> the EU budget
 How is it decided? -> two different budgetary procedures:
1. Commission prepares draft budget -> council presents amendments -
> EP accepts or rejects -> meeting between EP and Council members -
> acceptance, or all over again
2. Multi-Annual Financial Framework: commission prepares draft
budget -> Council needs to be unanimous -> EP accepts or rejects
 7 year cycle:
o EU budget becomes more predictable
o But less flexible (in case of emergencies)
o Reduces major political contestation to once every 7 years
o Major EU (spending) policies now also have a 7 year cycle

State’s budget EU’s budget
Spending  Civil servants  civil servants
 Buildings  buildings
 Government  EU institutions
 Army, hospitals,  Cohesion policy,
schools, regional
infrastructure development,
 subsidies agricultural
Earnings  Tax income, VAT  Contributions from
 Fines, excise Member States
duties (cigarettes,  EU taxes : VAT,
alcohol, sugar) carbon tax, single
use plastic
 Customs duties


 Balance: return
to MS or ask for
more money
In sum: the EU budget is small but its expenditure is quite targeted
What if a crisis strikes?
 Covid: some countries were hit much harder, massive recovery fund was
created (double the EU budget)
o EU borrowed money on the capital market (Eurobonds) with low
interest