Approaches to Psychology
William E. Glassmann & Marilyn Hadad, 6e editie
Inhoudsopgave
1. Behaviour and Psychology ..........................................................................................................................5
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................5
The challenge of psychology ..........................................................................................................................5
Why different approaches?.................................................................................................................................5
Perception and experience ............................................................................................................................5
Perception and theorizing ..............................................................................................................................6
The origins of psychology....................................................................................................................................7
Methods of studying behaviour ..........................................................................................................................7
The role of the scientific method in psychology ............................................................................................7
Introspectionism and public observation ............................................................................................................7
Measures of behaviour, research setting and research methods..................................................................8
Non-experimental methods: interviews and surveys ....................................................................................8
Naturalistic observation and unobtrusive measures .....................................................................................9
Case studies ...................................................................................................................................................9
Correlations and non-experimental research ................................................................................................9
Experiments .................................................................................................................................................10
Quasi-experiments .......................................................................................................................................10
Ethics in psychological research ...................................................................................................................10
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................11
2. The Biological Approach ............................................................................................................................ 12
Looking for the mind .........................................................................................................................................12
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................12
Interaction of mind and body in behaviour .......................................................................................................12
The effects of body on mind ........................................................................................................................12
The effects of mind on body ........................................................................................................................15
The hereditary basis of behaviour.....................................................................................................................16
Basic machanisms of heredity ......................................................................................................................17
Nature and nurture in behaviour .................................................................................................................17
Evolution and behaviour ..............................................................................................................................18
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................18
3. The Behaviourist Approach ....................................................................................................................... 19
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................19
Basic assumptions of behaviourism .............................................................................................................19
The pioneers of behaviourism .....................................................................................................................19
Stimuli and respons ......................................................................................................................................19
Classical conditioning........................................................................................................................................20
Classical conditioning phenomena...............................................................................................................21
Applications of classical conditioning ..........................................................................................................22
Operant conditionering .....................................................................................................................................23
Skinner and operant conditioning................................................................................................................23
, Reinforcers and reinforcement ....................................................................................................................24
Operant conditioning phenomena ...............................................................................................................25
Applications and implications of conditioning ..................................................................................................28
Negative reinforcers and the aversive control of operant behaviour..........................................................28
Interrelationships of classical and operant conditioning .............................................................................28
Autonomic conditioning and biofeedback ...................................................................................................28
Biological constraints on learning ................................................................................................................28
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................29
4. The Cognitive Approach ............................................................................................................................ 30
Thought and action ...........................................................................................................................................30
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................. 30
Perception and cognition ..................................................................................................................................30
Learning and memory .......................................................................................................................................30
Learning as information gathering ...............................................................................................................30
Memory as the retention of learning ...........................................................................................................31
A basic model of memory ............................................................................................................................31
Encoding and storage in memory ................................................................................................................32
Forgetting .....................................................................................................................................................33
Memory as reconstruction ...........................................................................................................................34
Improving memory.......................................................................................................................................34
Problem solving.................................................................................................................................................35
Defining problems ........................................................................................................................................35
Models of problem solving ..........................................................................................................................35
Creativity in problem solving .......................................................................................................................36
The formation of problem-solving skills.......................................................................................................37
Language ..........................................................................................................................................................37
Language learning ........................................................................................................................................37
Language and thinking .................................................................................................................................37
The cognitive viewpoint in other areas .............................................................................................................37
Attitudes and cognitive dissonance .............................................................................................................37
Attribution theory ........................................................................................................................................38
Cognition and emotions ...............................................................................................................................38
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................39
5. The Psychodynamic Approach ................................................................................................................... 40
Introductie ........................................................................................................................................................40
Freud en psychoanalyse ....................................................................................................................................40
Exploring the workings of the mind ..................................................................................................................40
Freud’s theory of consiousness ....................................................................................................................40
Dreams and symbolic expression .................................................................................................................41
Drives and the psychodynamics of behaviour .............................................................................................41
Freud’s psychodynamic model of personality ...................................................................................................41
Psychosexual stages of development................................................................................................................42
Orale fase .....................................................................................................................................................42
Anal stage.....................................................................................................................................................42
Phallic fase ...................................................................................................................................................42
Latency fase .................................................................................................................................................43
Genital stage ................................................................................................................................................43
2
, Fixation and regression during development ....................................................................................................44
Anxiety and defence mechanisms .....................................................................................................................44
Observing the unconscious in behaviour...........................................................................................................45
Freudian slips ...............................................................................................................................................45
Free association ...........................................................................................................................................45
Dreams .........................................................................................................................................................46
Cross-cultural studies ...................................................................................................................................46
Self-analysis..................................................................................................................................................46
Art ................................................................................................................................................................46
Assessing Freuds work ......................................................................................................................................46
Neo-Freudian and non-Freudian psychodynamic theories ...............................................................................46
Carl Jung and the collective unconscious .....................................................................................................46
Alfred Adler and individual psychology........................................................................................................47
Conclusie ...................................................................................................................................................... 49
6. The Humanistic Approach ......................................................................................................................... 50
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................50
The phenomenological viewpoint ................................................................................................................50
The capacity for choice ................................................................................................................................50
The role of meaning .....................................................................................................................................50
Carl Roger’s theory ...........................................................................................................................................50
Personality and the self................................................................................................................................50
Personality development and conditions for growth ..................................................................................51
Abraham Maslow’s Theory ...............................................................................................................................54
Motivation and the hierarchy of needs .......................................................................................................54
Self-actualization and peak experiences ......................................................................................................55
Maslow’s concept of healthy growth ...........................................................................................................55
Extending the humanistic approach .................................................................................................................55
Existential psychology ..................................................................................................................................55
Frankl’s logotherapy.....................................................................................................................................55
Positive psychology ......................................................................................................................................56
Coaching as an application of humanistic and positive psychology.............................................................56
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................56
7. Perspectives on development ................................................................................................................... 57
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................57
Methods of studying development ..............................................................................................................57
Issues in interpreting development .............................................................................................................57
Development: an overview ...............................................................................................................................58
Personality and gender role development ........................................................................................................59
Personality and its origins ............................................................................................................................59
Perspectives on personality .........................................................................................................................59
The development of gender roles ................................................................................................................61
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................62
8. Perspectives on Social Behaviour .............................................................................................................. 63
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................63
Social influence and the power of groups (box 8.1).....................................................................................63
Methods of studying social behaviour .........................................................................................................63
3
, Issues in the study of social behaviour ........................................................................................................64
Perspectives on aggression ...............................................................................................................................64
Defining aggression ......................................................................................................................................64
Methods of studying aggression ..................................................................................................................64
Theories of aggression .................................................................................................................................65
Perspectives on prosocial behaviour .................................................................................................................67
Defining prosocial behaviour & theories of altruism ...................................................................................67
9. Perspectives on abnormal behaviour ........................................................................................................ 69
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................69
Abnormality in historical context .................................................................................................................69
Classifying abnormal behaviour ...................................................................................................................69
Perspectives on aetiology and treatment .........................................................................................................70
10. Psychology in perspective................................................................................................................ 75
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................75
Reconsidering the origins of the approaches ....................................................................................................75
Perception and theory formation ................................................................................................................75
Objective evidence vs shifting paradigms ....................................................................................................75
Paradigms in psychology ..............................................................................................................................75
Psychology and science .....................................................................................................................................76
Limitations of the scientific method for psychology ....................................................................................76
The search of a new methodology ...............................................................................................................76
Psychology and culture .....................................................................................................................................76
The many and the one ......................................................................................................................................77
Seeking convergence ...................................................................................................................................77
Embracing pluralism.....................................................................................................................................77
4
William E. Glassmann & Marilyn Hadad, 6e editie
Inhoudsopgave
1. Behaviour and Psychology ..........................................................................................................................5
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................5
The challenge of psychology ..........................................................................................................................5
Why different approaches?.................................................................................................................................5
Perception and experience ............................................................................................................................5
Perception and theorizing ..............................................................................................................................6
The origins of psychology....................................................................................................................................7
Methods of studying behaviour ..........................................................................................................................7
The role of the scientific method in psychology ............................................................................................7
Introspectionism and public observation ............................................................................................................7
Measures of behaviour, research setting and research methods..................................................................8
Non-experimental methods: interviews and surveys ....................................................................................8
Naturalistic observation and unobtrusive measures .....................................................................................9
Case studies ...................................................................................................................................................9
Correlations and non-experimental research ................................................................................................9
Experiments .................................................................................................................................................10
Quasi-experiments .......................................................................................................................................10
Ethics in psychological research ...................................................................................................................10
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................11
2. The Biological Approach ............................................................................................................................ 12
Looking for the mind .........................................................................................................................................12
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................12
Interaction of mind and body in behaviour .......................................................................................................12
The effects of body on mind ........................................................................................................................12
The effects of mind on body ........................................................................................................................15
The hereditary basis of behaviour.....................................................................................................................16
Basic machanisms of heredity ......................................................................................................................17
Nature and nurture in behaviour .................................................................................................................17
Evolution and behaviour ..............................................................................................................................18
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................18
3. The Behaviourist Approach ....................................................................................................................... 19
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................19
Basic assumptions of behaviourism .............................................................................................................19
The pioneers of behaviourism .....................................................................................................................19
Stimuli and respons ......................................................................................................................................19
Classical conditioning........................................................................................................................................20
Classical conditioning phenomena...............................................................................................................21
Applications of classical conditioning ..........................................................................................................22
Operant conditionering .....................................................................................................................................23
Skinner and operant conditioning................................................................................................................23
, Reinforcers and reinforcement ....................................................................................................................24
Operant conditioning phenomena ...............................................................................................................25
Applications and implications of conditioning ..................................................................................................28
Negative reinforcers and the aversive control of operant behaviour..........................................................28
Interrelationships of classical and operant conditioning .............................................................................28
Autonomic conditioning and biofeedback ...................................................................................................28
Biological constraints on learning ................................................................................................................28
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................29
4. The Cognitive Approach ............................................................................................................................ 30
Thought and action ...........................................................................................................................................30
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................. 30
Perception and cognition ..................................................................................................................................30
Learning and memory .......................................................................................................................................30
Learning as information gathering ...............................................................................................................30
Memory as the retention of learning ...........................................................................................................31
A basic model of memory ............................................................................................................................31
Encoding and storage in memory ................................................................................................................32
Forgetting .....................................................................................................................................................33
Memory as reconstruction ...........................................................................................................................34
Improving memory.......................................................................................................................................34
Problem solving.................................................................................................................................................35
Defining problems ........................................................................................................................................35
Models of problem solving ..........................................................................................................................35
Creativity in problem solving .......................................................................................................................36
The formation of problem-solving skills.......................................................................................................37
Language ..........................................................................................................................................................37
Language learning ........................................................................................................................................37
Language and thinking .................................................................................................................................37
The cognitive viewpoint in other areas .............................................................................................................37
Attitudes and cognitive dissonance .............................................................................................................37
Attribution theory ........................................................................................................................................38
Cognition and emotions ...............................................................................................................................38
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................39
5. The Psychodynamic Approach ................................................................................................................... 40
Introductie ........................................................................................................................................................40
Freud en psychoanalyse ....................................................................................................................................40
Exploring the workings of the mind ..................................................................................................................40
Freud’s theory of consiousness ....................................................................................................................40
Dreams and symbolic expression .................................................................................................................41
Drives and the psychodynamics of behaviour .............................................................................................41
Freud’s psychodynamic model of personality ...................................................................................................41
Psychosexual stages of development................................................................................................................42
Orale fase .....................................................................................................................................................42
Anal stage.....................................................................................................................................................42
Phallic fase ...................................................................................................................................................42
Latency fase .................................................................................................................................................43
Genital stage ................................................................................................................................................43
2
, Fixation and regression during development ....................................................................................................44
Anxiety and defence mechanisms .....................................................................................................................44
Observing the unconscious in behaviour...........................................................................................................45
Freudian slips ...............................................................................................................................................45
Free association ...........................................................................................................................................45
Dreams .........................................................................................................................................................46
Cross-cultural studies ...................................................................................................................................46
Self-analysis..................................................................................................................................................46
Art ................................................................................................................................................................46
Assessing Freuds work ......................................................................................................................................46
Neo-Freudian and non-Freudian psychodynamic theories ...............................................................................46
Carl Jung and the collective unconscious .....................................................................................................46
Alfred Adler and individual psychology........................................................................................................47
Conclusie ...................................................................................................................................................... 49
6. The Humanistic Approach ......................................................................................................................... 50
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................50
The phenomenological viewpoint ................................................................................................................50
The capacity for choice ................................................................................................................................50
The role of meaning .....................................................................................................................................50
Carl Roger’s theory ...........................................................................................................................................50
Personality and the self................................................................................................................................50
Personality development and conditions for growth ..................................................................................51
Abraham Maslow’s Theory ...............................................................................................................................54
Motivation and the hierarchy of needs .......................................................................................................54
Self-actualization and peak experiences ......................................................................................................55
Maslow’s concept of healthy growth ...........................................................................................................55
Extending the humanistic approach .................................................................................................................55
Existential psychology ..................................................................................................................................55
Frankl’s logotherapy.....................................................................................................................................55
Positive psychology ......................................................................................................................................56
Coaching as an application of humanistic and positive psychology.............................................................56
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................56
7. Perspectives on development ................................................................................................................... 57
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................57
Methods of studying development ..............................................................................................................57
Issues in interpreting development .............................................................................................................57
Development: an overview ...............................................................................................................................58
Personality and gender role development ........................................................................................................59
Personality and its origins ............................................................................................................................59
Perspectives on personality .........................................................................................................................59
The development of gender roles ................................................................................................................61
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................62
8. Perspectives on Social Behaviour .............................................................................................................. 63
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................63
Social influence and the power of groups (box 8.1).....................................................................................63
Methods of studying social behaviour .........................................................................................................63
3
, Issues in the study of social behaviour ........................................................................................................64
Perspectives on aggression ...............................................................................................................................64
Defining aggression ......................................................................................................................................64
Methods of studying aggression ..................................................................................................................64
Theories of aggression .................................................................................................................................65
Perspectives on prosocial behaviour .................................................................................................................67
Defining prosocial behaviour & theories of altruism ...................................................................................67
9. Perspectives on abnormal behaviour ........................................................................................................ 69
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................69
Abnormality in historical context .................................................................................................................69
Classifying abnormal behaviour ...................................................................................................................69
Perspectives on aetiology and treatment .........................................................................................................70
10. Psychology in perspective................................................................................................................ 75
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................75
Reconsidering the origins of the approaches ....................................................................................................75
Perception and theory formation ................................................................................................................75
Objective evidence vs shifting paradigms ....................................................................................................75
Paradigms in psychology ..............................................................................................................................75
Psychology and science .....................................................................................................................................76
Limitations of the scientific method for psychology ....................................................................................76
The search of a new methodology ...............................................................................................................76
Psychology and culture .....................................................................................................................................76
The many and the one ......................................................................................................................................77
Seeking convergence ...................................................................................................................................77
Embracing pluralism.....................................................................................................................................77
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